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# Thinking Critically About Maps: Researching, Resisting and Re-imagining the World

By Yung Au

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/il/critical-maps-cik-illustration.png)

```cik-in-short
```
**IN SHORT:** Thinking critically about maps is not just about being conscious of potential harms and biases that maps can sometimes reveal, but also a way of investigation itself. New insights, perspectives and vantage points are gained when we challenge dominant perspectives about geographies and locations. This is a case-based guide on how to critically “read” and use maps for investigation, resistance and more.

## The many Norths


Maps in Chinese are called 地圖 or “portrait of earth”, and there are
certainly many ways to paint our world (and beyond.)

The online Cambridge Dictionary _**[defines maps](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/map)**_ as “a
drawing that represents a region or place by showing the various
features of it.” Maps might present to the viewer a sprawling megacity,
a network of underground tunnels or the contours and currents of a
rambling river. However, as representations of our infinitely complex
word, maps are inherently political, subjective, and imperfect. They
contain multitudes. 

This piece aims to build on _**[other ETI Kit guides](https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/how/maps.html)**_
describing what maps can be, what we should be attuned to when we use
and build them and how they can further investigations and awareness.

Thinking critically about maps is not just about being conscious of
potential harms and pitfalls that come with them, it is also a method of
investigation itself. When we question commonly held ideas and points of
view, we gain new insights in the process.

As we unfold the maps we rely on, it is important to remember that maps,
like [other types](https://medium.com/@ODSC/9-common-mistakes-that-lead-to-data-bias-a121580c7d1f)
of [data](https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/calendar/what-data-bias-and-why-should-journalists-pay-attention-it),
have inherent biases. Maps attempt to summarize the infinitely complex
time and space we live in and are necessarily - and often usefully -
reductive, or simplified in some way.

Flat maps, for example, are always “[projected](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Map_projection&oldid=998264457)”
in _**[certain ways](https://www.vqronline.org/essays-articles/2017/01/here-be-dragons)**_,
where projections are ways to flatten the 3D globe into a 2D format (see
images below). This happens because earth is a sphere suspended in space
where there is no objective "up", "down", or "center." Therefore, every
projection reflects a deliberate set of choices decided by the
cartographer(s) and guided by certain point of views. As such,
projections have always been controversial.

One of today’s most widely used projections is the _**[*Mercator projection*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercator_projection)**_, which is
most commonly attributed to a Flemish geographer, Gerardus Mercator, in 1569. In this projection, Europe is placed at the center of the map and
the continent of Africa is distorted to look smaller than Greenland when
in reality, it is 14.5 times larger (see image below).



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f2.png)



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f3.png)



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f4.png)
*Screenshots from [thetruesize.com](http://thetruesize.com), an
interactive website that compares a country's real size which is
distorted by the Mercator projection.*


Even the parts of a map many people take for granted aren’t always
straightforward. For instance, we might be accustomed to a single
“north” that guides us and orients a map the “right way up”. However,
many norths exist, including:

- **True North:** The northern most point on the spherical earth
(which is distorted when looking at flat maps).

- **Grid north:** The north that runs upwards alongside the grid lines
on a flat map.

- **Magnetic North:** The north as indicated by a compass; the
magnetic fields that “pull” a compass’ magnet is influenced by solar
winds and the earth’s rotation, and as such, are not necessarily
situated at the northernmost point of earth at any given time. This
point regularly shifts; sometimes closer to Canada, other times
traversing towards Russia.

- **Google Maps’ North:** There is also an increasing recognition of a
“Google Maps’ North” due to the platform’s prevalence where their
north is adjusted for their particular projection used.



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f5.gif)
*Screenshot of shifting magnetic north. Source:
<https://www.forbes.com/sites/trevornace/2019/02/05/earths-magnetic-north-pole-has-officially-moved/?sh=198e7aa36862>*

Whether created by meteorologists or tech corporations, our maps vary
according to who made them and who they are intended for. Our realities
are calibrated to the mapmaker’s truths. There are entire fields of
study dedicated to the idea that maps are not objective. Approaches such
as “Decolonial Mapping”, “Indigenous Mapping” and “Radical/Critical
Cartography” in particular examine the many implications of presenting
our multi-dimensional realities on a piece of parchment or flat screen
for instance.


```cik-note
```
>
> **“Decolonial Mapping”, “Indigenous Mapping” and “Radical/Critical
> Cartography”**
>
> These spheres of knowledge production have various definitions and
> often overlap but some simple definitions would be:
>
>- Decolonial and Postcolonial Mapping seeks to resist maps and
> map-making legacies that stem from settler colonialism and imperial
> projects.
>
> - Indigenous Mapping in particular seeks to recenter
> Indigenous mappings and cartographies as spatial practices of
> world-making; a practice that has a long history. See:
> [*Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization*](https://utpjournals.press/loi/cart), Vol 55, No 3
> (utpjournals.press), and _**[*The Decolonial Atlas.*](https://decolonialatlas.wordpress.com/)**_
>
>- Radical Cartography is the practice of map-making that aims to
> subvert the status quo and promote social change. Radical referring
> to grasping at the root of the problem. See: [*The Search for a Radical Cartography - Cartographic
> Perspectives*](https://cartographicperspectives.org/index.php/journal/article/view/cp68-denil)
> and [*An Atlas of Radical Cartography.*](http://www.an-atlas.com/)
>
>- [Critical Cartography](#term-critical-cartography) and Critical Geography more generally is a wide
> field of practices grounded in _**[critical theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_theory)**_, with the
> starting point that maps are not objective and instead, reflects and
> perpetuate relations of power. See: [*Antipode Online*](https://antipodeonline.org/) (for publications of the
> radical geography community) and [*The Occupied Times – Critical Cartography.*](https://theoccupiedtimes.org/?p=13771)


However, despite these inherent shortcomings, these bodies of work also
remind us that maps and map-making are often central to investigations,
storytelling, resistance, governance efforts and daily life. They can
enforce territorial claims, empower communities and erase certain
realities. Maps can also take on many forms - on paper, in virtual
space, or even _**[as words](https://placesjournal.org/series/poems-as-maps/)**_ - as long as
they help situate oneself in the wider world.



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f1.png)
*Examples of popular map projections. Source: <https://map-projections.net/singleview.php> (you can explore more
“projections” here <https://decolonialatlas.wordpress.com/category/alternative-projections/>)*


<br/>

## The critical map

Now that we’ve clarified that maps are not completely objective, how can we think critically about maps when conducting research and investigation?
This section presents some examples of mapping elements to break down for new insights:

- The Vertical and Beyond

- Missing Data

- Careful Crowdsourcing

- Mapping Infrastructures and Authorities

### The vertical and beyond

Maps are often flat and presented with a
[bird’s-eye-view](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird%27s-eye_view). This
is great for convenience, but it is important to remember that these
orientations are not fixed and can be adjusted for further insights.
Think, for instance, of the top-down view of mapping compressing our
multi-tiered world into a single layer, collapsing certain nuances on
the vertical axes of life.

The spaces we inhabit always extend vertically and volumetrically.

```cik-note
```
>
> **Vertical** refers to the direction or alignment of being upwards and
> downwards; the right angles to a horizontal plane.
>
> **Volumetric** refers to thinking in terms of measurements through the
> volume of a city (rather than of area), for instance the density or
> compactness of activities in a given urban space. Read more at
> [*Volumetric Sovereignty*](https://www.societyandspace.org/forums/volumetric-sovereignty).
>


For example, Hong Kong contains some of the most vertical and voluminous
localities in the world. Home to some of the busiest and densest square
miles, social life is built in and around the mountainous and oceanic
terrains that underlies the city. With winding underpasses that turn
into overpasses, miles of continuous elevated footpaths and outdoor
escalators, and with life teeming from the sub-terrain layers to the
rooftops of skyscrapers, the urban sprawl is not easily captured in the
flat map (see image below).



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f5.png)
*Images of Hong Kong, by Yung Au*

Here, charting the nuances along these axes of life is often important.

```cik-example
```
>
> See for example, the investigations into the [Kowloon Walled City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kowloon_Walled_City), a settlement
> in Hong Kong that was demolished in 1993 due to safety concerns. It
> was best known for its later years as a dense and haphazard enclave
> where by 1990 it was home to 50,000 residents within its 2.7 hectare
> borders. Formidable, unruly and crowded, Kowloon Walled City
> constituted of 500 interconnected high-rise building, living quarters,
> shops, classrooms and other structures, stacked haphazardly on top of
> each other. The settlement grew organically without any one particular
> architect and came under the control of various triads and families
> over the years.
>
> Investigations into the Walled City required attention to the stacked,
> vertical nature of these interwoven structures. See for example,
> below, the hyper-detailed maps published in 1997 by Japanese
> anthropologist, Kani Hioraki and a team of researchers. Collapsing the
> vertical axis here meant omitting a great deal of the uneven, overlaid
> labyrinthine structure of the settlement and the lives that stretched
> upwards. Likewise, modern day recreations of the Walled City attend
> carefully to its precarious, stacked nature - including how, despite
> the disorder, all the buildings were arranged to be just under 14
> floors to avoid the low flying planes that landed at the nearby
> airport, and how the extensive water system consisting of 77 wells,
> rooftop tanks and electric pumps were organized to allow water to
> trickle down to reach its inhabitants.
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f8-1.jpg)
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f8-2.jpg)
>
> *Images: 1997 illustrations of the Kowloon Walled City by Japanese
> researchers led by anthropologist Kani Hioraki (published in Daizukai
> Kyuryujo, 1997)*
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f9.jpg)
> *Image: a depiction of the Kowloon walled city which illustrates how
> important it is to pay attention to the vertical axis and the
> difficulties of flattening a map. Image source:
> <https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/article/1191748/kowloon-walled-city-life-city-darkness?utm_medium=website&utm_source=archdaily.com>*
>


As such, during an investigation it might be good to **ask whether the
vertical, volumetric aspects of the environment might be important** (also
see S. Elden, [*Secure the volume: Vertical geopolitics and the depth of power*](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271581542_Secure_the_volume_Vertical_geopolitics_and_the_depth_of_power), Political Geography, vol. 34, pp. 35–51, 2013.).

Some starting questions to ask are:

- **What dimensions and details might be missing in a flat, bird-eye-view map?**

- **Are the uneven topographies, elevation, and city structures important in this investigation?** In movements, conflicts and clashes, the vertical elements are often important, for instance:

- see Củ Chi tunnels used during the 1955 – 1975 US and Vietnam
War ([Củ Chi tunnels - Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%E1%BB%A7_Chi_tunnels)
and figure below);

- see the multi-level occupation of the West Bank as examined by
Eyal Weizman in [*The Politics of Verticality*](https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/article_801jsp/) (also see [a lecture on the
topic](https://forensic-architecture.org/programme/events/the-politics-of-verticality-the-architecture-of-warfare-in-the-west-bank))
and Helga Tawil Souri in [*Digital occupation: Gaza's high-tech
enclosure*](https://web.archive.org/web/20210726200358/https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/journals/jps/v41i2/f_0025106_20500.pdf) -
from the strategic locations of valleys and mountains in the landscape to the politics of water, sewage, and militarization of airspace;

- see the 2019-2020 [city-wide protests in Hong Kong](https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/12/16/hong-kongs-protest-movement-and-the-fight-for-the-citys-soul) that adapted to all levels of the city from the underground train stations to skyscrapers.

- **Are there elements of conflicts over [air-space](https://web.archive.org/web/20210726202040/https://repository.asu.edu/attachments/216876/content/Knight_asu_0010N_18894.pdf) or sea-space in the investigation?** These are becoming increasingly important arenas to pay attention to as our [urban expansions continue](https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2019/feb/05/super-tall-super-skinny-super-expensive-the-pencil-towers-of-new-yorks-super-rich)up and downwards – from drone warfare to “[air rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_rights)” (rights to control and develop unused airspace above a real estate property.)


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f10.jpg)
*Image: “SUBTERRANEAN FOES: The fighting women of the Cu Chi tunnels", by Erik Pauser. Source: https://www.cabinetmagazine.org/issues/30/pauser.php*

These questions require a nuanced understanding of the case in question.
As such, **it is in your advantage to be intimately familiar with the
locality you are investigating**, or be collaborating with local
individuals and organizations as there might be important details
armchair research might miss out.

```cik-example
```
>
> **Advanced tools and examples of using them to investigate:**
>
> Advanced tools to investigate the three-dimensional [(3D)](#term-3dmodelling) world are
> becoming increasingly accessible and affordable. This includes remote
> sensing, 3D modelling, [photogrammetry](#term-photogrammetry), [Lidar](#term-lidar) scanners (which are
> beginning to be integrated with iPhone cameras), [Virtual Reality (VR)](#term-vr)
> and [Augmented Reality (AR)](#term-ar). See investigations from the research
> agency _**[Forensic Architecture](https://forensic-architecture.org/)**_,
> where these tools are utilized alongside other methods to explore
> multiple dimensions in a given case.
>
> These are basic definitions of the main processes and tools involved
> with 3D methods and analysis:
>
>- **Remote sensing** - is the process of gathering information about
> an object of phenomenon is done without physical contact with the
> object.
>
>- **3D modelling** - is the process of developing a 3D representation
> of an object or place using specialized software
>
>- **Photogrammetry** - is the process of extracting 3D information
> from photographs.
>
>- **Lidar -** is a method for calculating ranges by targeting an
> object with a laser and measuring the time for the reflected light
> to return to the receiver.
>
>- **Virtual Reality (VR)** - is the creation of a simulated
> environment.
>
>- **Augmented reality (AR)** - is a way of enhancing an environment by
> superimposing computer-generated information on top of the real
> world.
>
> At Forensic Architecture, 3D modelling
> (physical or digital), VR and photogrammetry methods are used to
> better examine the landscape from images, camera positions, how events
> unfolded relative to one another. Understanding the perspectives of
> any given source is useful to establish what was within the frame and
> what remains outside – giving “investigators a fuller picture of how
> much is known, or not, about the incident they are studying”
> ([Forensic Architecture](https://forensic-architecture.org/methodology/3d-modelling).)
>
> 3D modelling was used as part of their investigation on
> “[Environmental Racism in Death Alley, Louisiana](https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/environmental-racism-in-death-alley-louisiana)”
> (1718-Ongoing) in partnership with RISE St. James (see images below).
> Here they reconstructed an interactive 3D representation of a
> ‘typical’ sugarcane plantation in the lower Mississippi River. Based
> from a composite of several plantations and cartographic evidence,
> along with historical archives, property surveys, interview
> transcripts and other data, the 3D representations helped communicate
> the scales and the logics of these plantations which “was at once
> industrial facility, farm, prison, death camp, and luxury estate”.
>
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f12.png)
>
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f11.png)
> *Source: [Forensic Architecture](https://forensic-architecture.org/),
> “[Environmental Racism in Death Alley,
> Louisiana](https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/environmental-racism-in-death-alley-louisiana)”:
> https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/environmental-racism-in-death-alley-louisiana*
>
> Virtual Reality (VR) is used in their investigation into “[The Killing of Mark
> Duggan](https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/the-killing-of-mark-duggan)”
> (see image below.) As part of a civil claim against the UK’s
> Metropolitan Police, Forensic Architecture developed a VR environment
> that emulated the event as it unfolded to illustrate the various
> inconsistency in police testimonies.
>
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f13.png)
> *Source: [Forensic Architecture](https://forensic-architecture.org/),
> “The Killing Of Mark Duggan”: <https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/the-killing-of-mark-duggan>*
>
> Photogrammetry was used in their investigation into the “[Destruction
> and Return in Al-Araqib](https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/destruction-and-return-in-al-araqib)”
> (see figure x). Forensic Architecture collaborated with local
> families, Zochrot and PublicLab to collect evident on the history of
> the village of al-Araqib in the northern Naqab desert. Synthesizing
> aerial footage, archaeological survey, images taken from cameras
> suspended from kites, and photogrammetry, they launched a navigable
> digital platform that documents the expulsion, destruction, but also
> the ongoing life and resistance in the region.
>
> This platform aims to support a legal petition by the al-Tūri family
> of al-Araqib.
>
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f14.png)
> *Source: [Forensic Architecture](https://forensic-architecture.org/),
> “Destruction and Return in al-Araqib”: <https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/destruction-and-return-in-al-araqib>*
>


In sum, new insights might be possible in a careful examination of
space. Social lives sprawl across all sorts of directions - what are we
missing in our fixation of the horizon?


### Missing data

While it may seem that we have thoroughly scoured the corners of our
world, many things remain unmapped, unrecorded and obscured. For
example, much of our oceans are still unexplored — while Google Maps
uses infra-red modelling to infer contour lines on the ocean floors, and
this is still only an approximation. See more about this in _**[*Here Be
Dragons. Finding the Blank Spaces in a Well-Mapped World*](https://www.vqronline.org/essays-articles/2017/01/here-be-dragons)**_ by [Lois Parshley.](https://www.vqronline.org/people/lois-parshley)

Writing about the wider world of missing data, Nigerian-American artist
and researcher [Mimi Ọnụọha](https://mimionuoha.com/) states that blank
spots often “exist in spaces that are otherwise data-saturated,” and
that a lack of data “typically correlates with issues affecting those
who are most vulnerable in that context” (see _**[*Missing Datasets*](https://mimionuoha.com/the-library-of-missing-datasets)**_ by Mimi
Onuoha. 2020.).

**What might our maps be missing and what can this tell us?**

The late British geographer [J.B. Harley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brian_Harley) was
particularly fixated on this question and wrote about what he called
“cartographic silence” in maps — where blank spots are not necessarily
the result of mistakes, ignorance, or technical issues, but rather part
of the map itself where “silence can reveal as much as it conceals” (see
more in “Cartographic Abstraction in Contemporary Art: Seeing with
Maps”, by Claire Reddleman - book published in 2017 by Routledge - also
available here: <https://www.clairereddleman.com/chapters-of-cartographic-abstraction-in-contemporary-art-seeing-with-maps>).
For instance, colonial maps of the Americas often erased Indigenous
locations and names as a way of showing that these lands were
“available” for settlement (see [Anita Lucchesi](https://www.annitalucchesi.com/) [*'Indians Don't Make Maps': Indigenous Cartographic Traditions and
Innovations*](https://doi.org/10.17953/aicrj.42.3.lucchesi), American
Indian Culture and Research Journal, 42(3), 2018; and  J. B. Harley,
[*Silences and secrecy: the hidden agenda of cartography in early modern
Europe*](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03085698808592639), Imago Mundi, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 57–76, 1988.

Likewise, in 2014, Brazilian geography scholar André Reyes Novaes argued
that Rio de Janeiro’s official maps mostly ignored the city’s informal
*favela* neighborhoods until the 1990s where this “silencing” was
indicative of the indifferent attitude of the political elites towards
favelas – the omission being a way of flattening the complexity and
humanity of life in these settlements (see A. R. Novaes, [*Favelas and
the divided city: mapping silences and calculations in Rio de Janeiro’s
journalistic cartography*](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14649365.2013.872285), in Social & Cultural Geography, vol. 15, no.
2, pp. 201–225, 2014.)

Mapping the unmapped is then a way of investigation, activism and
resistance. For example, formed in the mid-70s, _**[Unnayan](http://www.an-atlas.com/contents/unn_sen.html)**_ was a
collective of “radical planners” in Kolkata (formerly Calcutta, the
capital of India's West Bengal state) who mapped missing spaces as part
of their fight for dwelling rights for the working poor (see image
below). They sought to place on the map the various unauthorized
settlements that were labelled as vacant land on government issued maps.
With the community of dwellers, they created maps that made these
settlements visible, which also helped implement and document water
systems, drainage schemes and roadways. These maps became an important
part of gaining recognitions for housing rights at the national and
international levels (see Unnayan / Jai Sen: <http://www.an-atlas.com/contents/unn_sen.html>.)


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f15.png)
*Source: “An Atlas of Radical Cartography”: <http://www.an-atlas.com/contents/unn_sen.html>*

Different maps will have different information voids. For an
illustration of this, see Sterling Quinn’s work on _**[*Geographies of
Empty Spaces*](https://cartographicperspectives.org/index.php/journal/article/view/1591/1871)**_.
Through a detailed comparison of various paper and digital maps of
Washington in the United States, Quinn found varying patterns of missing
data, defined as areas where no map features appear (see image below).

In an investigation then, it is important to be aware of the biases of
any particular map and _**[triangulate data](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangulation_(social_science))**_
where possible.



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f16.png)
*Image: Sterling Quinn’s research on “empty spaces” in maps. Row above indicates the digital maps she compared, row below indicates the paper maps she used. Black shaded area represents areas where no map features appear. Source: <https://cartographicperspectives.org/index.php/journal/article/view/1591/1871>*

**If certain communities, activities, and landscapes are hidden from view, how can you tell what is swept under the rug?**

Some starting questions to ask include:

- **Whose maps does the investigation rely on, and what missing data might exist?** What features of a map might a mapping authority deem
unimportant or worth hiding?

- **Are certain parts of the map blurred, pixelated or only available in
low resolutions?** This is a common practice in satellite maps for
particularly strategic locations such as military airbases, refugee
camps, power plants, and important infrastructures. Examining the
selective obscuring of particular features of a map can be a useful
investigative tool - see [Federation of American Scientists](https://fas.org)’ investigation into how blurring of
satellite images can reveal the exact location of secret facilities:
[*Widespread Blurring of Satellite Images Reveals Secret Facilities*](https://fas.org/blogs/security/2018/12/widespread-blurring-of-satellite-images-reveals-secret-facilities/).
Also, see this crowdsourced Wikipedia entry [*List of satellite map images with missing or unclear data*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_satellite_map_images_with_missing_or_unclear_data).”

- **Are the maps intentionally outdated?** Some maps intentionally depict
an older time period or omit data within certain timeframes. For
example, see the [Associate Press’ investigation](https://web.archive.org/web/20210926124230/https://www.jacksonville.com/article/20110822/NEWS/801245757) into post-9/11 obfuscation in US maps (original link: <https://www.jacksonville.com/article/20110822/NEWS/801245757> /
archived with Waybac Machine [here.](https://web.archive.org/web/20210926124230/https://www.jacksonville.com/article/20110822/NEWS/801245757))

- **Might the map have vague or misleading labels or features?** This is a
common tactic to direct unwanted attention away from a certain area.
For instance, military and intelligence assets are often omitted
from UK maps, or labelled as “farms” and ambiguous entities such as
“depot,” “works,” or “disused airfield” (see, as an example the
article of C. Perkins and M. Dodge, _**[*Satellite imagery and the spectacle of secret spaces*](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016718509000517)**_, in *Geoforum*, vol. 40, no. 4, pp.546–560, 2009.)

Sometimes maps omit important data due to technical and design decisions
too. For instance, “cartographic generalization” is a common process in
digital geographic systems such as Geographic Information System (GIS).
Cartographic generalization controls how much detail is represented in a
map where trade-offs are necessary (where this is shaped by human and/or
automated decisions). This can result in problems such as the
[Baltimore phenomenon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartographic_generalization),
the tendency for a city to be omitted from maps due to space constraints
while smaller cities are included on the same map because there is enough space to display them (also see more details in this useful _**[*General
Cartography* syllabus](https://www.eiilmuniversity.co.in/downloads/General_Cartography.pdf)**_ from Eiilm University, page 44 for Baltimore
Phenomenon - syllabus archived with Wayback Machine [here](https://web.archive.org/web/20210926125211/https://www.eiilmuniversity.co.in/downloads/General_Cartography.pdf)).
The city of Baltimore in the United States is often omitted on maps of certain scales due to the presence of larger cities in close proximity of it, despite the fact that smaller cities often appear at these same scales. For further reading on
this topic see: _**[*How to Map Nothing*](https://placesjournal.org/article/how-to-map-nothing/)**_ (Shannon Mattern, March 2021) on Placesjournal.org.

With so many ways to obscure or hide data, it is important not to assume
that any one map is definitive. It might be important to consult a
variety of sources and to not write-off paper or locally created maps.
At the same time, **it is important to note that not everything can be
or should be captured. There are reasons why communities and actors may
wish to remain off the maps and other radars. When investigating it is
important to acknowledge data refusal and incorporate ways to truly gain
consent.** For more about this see research by:

- E. Tuck and K. W. Yang - [*Unbecoming claims: Pedagogies of refusal in qualitative research*](https://www.sjsu.edu/people/marcos.pizarro/courses/240/s0/275TuckYang.pdf), Qualitative Inquiry, vol. 20, no. 6, pp.811–818, 2014.

- A. Simpson - [*On ethnographic refusal: Indigeneity,‘voice’and colonial citizenship*](https://pages.ucsd.edu/~rfrank/class_web/ES-270/SimpsonJunctures9.pdf), Junctures: The Journal for Thematic Dialogue, no. 9, 2007.


```cik-tip
```
> **Tips:**
>
> While filling out missing data is a valuable exercise, it is always important to ask:
>
>- Am I working with a community in a mapping project?
>
>- Does the community I am mapping wish to be counted or exposed in a
> certain way?
>
>- Do they have a say in whether they wish to be involved, the
> questions being asked, and throughout the mapping process?
>
> These questions are essential if the community at hand is marginalized
> or precarious in some way. There are ways to preserve anonymity and
> confidentiality however location data is especially revealing: see
> [controversies from the Muslim Pro App](https://nowthisnews.com/news/people-are-deleting-the-muslim-pro-prayer-app-after-learning-data-was-shared-with-us-military)
> and [phone location data mapping](https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/12/10/business/location-data-privacy-apps.html)
> as some examples.
>


### Mapping communities with careful crowdsourcing


It is important to consider whether you are mapping your own community
or a community you are not a part of. What might you be missing as an
outsider? Always remember to situate yourself in the mapping exercise,
properly contextualize your maps, and carefully consider the localities
you are studying. Ask yourself:

- Whose maps are you relying on?

- Whose knowledge and interpretation are you using?

- Who are you including and excluding?

If you are not a part of the community at hand, consider partnering with
community members in your investigation, including at the research
design stage (for further reading on this topic, see: Annita Lucchesi’s
[work](https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/full/10.3138/cart-2019-0022) on
Indigenous Mapping principles in *Spatial Data and (De)Colonization:
Incorporating Indigenous Data Sovereignty Principles into Cartographic
Research* including [her talk](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GQXc9eGp6So) on this
topic; and ideas on Co-produced Ethnography in the book [*Decolonizing Ethnography: Undocumented Immigrants and New Directions in Social Science*](https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv11smmv5) by Carolina Alonso Bejarano, Lucía López Juárez, Mirian A.
Mijangos García and Daniel M. Goldstein, 2019 Published by: Duke
University Press (reviewed [here.](https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/lsereviewofbooks/2020/04/28/book-review-decolonizing-ethnography-undocumented-immigrants-and-new-directions-in-social-science-by-carolina-alonso-bejarano-lucia-lopez-juarez-mirian-a-mijangos-garcia-and-daniel-m-goldstein/))

_**[Crowdsourcing](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/articles/it-takes-a-crowd)**_
is a popular way of involving a community in the mapmaking process, but
this method does not mean the work is necessarily being co-created, or
that participants have equal footing in the project (see more about
Collaborative Cartography _**[here.](https://gistbok.ucgis.org/bok-topics/collaborative-cartography)**_)

The critical thinking surrounding commercial maps should be extended to
other types of open-source projects too. Some questions to think about
include:

- Who is defining the questions and parameters being investigated?

- On whose terms are the information being collected and analyzed on?
Is there room for substantive feedback and change?

- What input is actually allowed from the participants?

- Who is the arbiter of what gets mapped and what does not?

- Who ultimately owns the data, maps and knowledge produced? Who are
the cited authors and who benefits?

- Is the crowdsourced data from a representative sample of the
community?

- What languages are the maps available in and will this allow for
different members of a community to contribute?

As authors of the book _**[*Indigenous Data Sovereignty*](https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n2140/pdf/book.pdf)**_,
Tahu Kukutai and John Taylor argue, data ownership, including control
over technical adjustments, content, and infrastructure, matters
immensely, particularly when indigenous and minority communities are
involved (see more in T. J. McGurk and S. Caquard, *To what extent can online mapping be decolonial? A journey throughout Indigenous cartography in Canada*, The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien, vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 49–64, 2020, doi: <https://doi.org/10.1111/cag.12602> , full pdf
[here](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339414491_To_what_extent_can_online_mapping_be_decolonial_A_journey_throughout_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada) )

Maps faces, including the thousands of [fake company listings](https://www.newscientist.com/article/2127150-thousands-of-fake-companies-added-to-google-maps-every-month/) present in its services, the map's underlying [commercial orientations](https://www.diggitmagazine.com/articles/google-maps-commercially-oriented-representation-world) and many [biases](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339414491_To_what_extent_can_online_mapping_be_decolonial_A_journey_throughout_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada) of their framework despite attempts at making mapping “open”.


```cik-note
```
>
> **Note:**
>
> While working with open-source and collaborative frameworks is generally great, it is important to remember
> that crowdsourcing data is not inherently good and that there are many elements to pay attention to (also see A. Basiri, M. Haklay, G. Foody,
> and P. Mooney, [*Crowdsourced geospatial data quality: challenges and future directions*](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13658816.2019.1593422), International Journal of Geographical Information Science, vol. 33, no. 8, pp. 1588–1593, Aug. 2019.) Critical reflection and acknowledging your own limitations while assessing when it’s important to think of _**[collaborating](https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/how/collaboration.html)**_ with other experts are crucial processes in investigations.
>


### Mapping infrastructures and authorities

It is vital to carefully think through what mapping infrastructure underpins
investigative projects. While many freely available mapping
infrastructures allow extensive customization, we need to pay attention
to what is not customizable.

Maps are tethered to certain places and jurisdictions. Both paper and digital maps often have layers of
intersecting authority. For instance, Google’s headquarters are in the
US, but it is a global company, subject to local legislation and
pressure from various communities, where maps can look different
depending on where you are accessing them from. One example is Kashmir,
a contested area of land straddling the borders of China, India, and
Pakistan. When viewing Kashmir on Google Maps from Pakistan, the borders
are disjointed and appear disputed. However, when viewing from India, a
single, smooth line carves out Kashmir as a part of India. Mapped
borders and territories are less concrete than any printed black lines
would suggest.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f17.1.png)

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f17.2.png)
*Image: The Kashmir borders on Google Maps which appear disputed when viewing from Pakistan (left). When viewed from India however, the solid,continuous border implies that Kashmir is part of India (right) 2020. Source: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rZpc2_xnSfc>*

Maps are also subjected to certain laws. For instance, many of
the largest platforms providing digital maps are based in the US
including Google Maps, Microsoft Bing Maps, and Apple Maps – and as
such, they are all subject to a law called the Kyl-Bingaman Amendment
(KBA) which was put in force in the 1997. The KBA essentially ensures
that US companies are only allowed to disseminate low resolution
satellite imagery over Israel-occupied territories (with several exceptions).
Here, the importance of who the mapping authorities are is made explicit.

```cik-note
```
>
> **Note:**
>
> It might be helpful to remember that restrictions can also be
> challenged and circumvented depending on the circumstance. See here
> for an example of a team of archaeologist who were successful in
> challenging elements of the [Kyl-Bingaman Amendment (KBA)](https://www.ox.ac.uk/news/arts-blog/oxford-archaeologists-win-access-restricted-satellite-images-israel-and-palestinian) and in reducing its restrictions.
>


For this reason, it is worth comparing various maps. See below for a
table of some popular web-based mapping services and examples of how
they differ.


||Origin|Type|Some notes on maps|
|--- |--- |--- |--- |
|OpenStreetMap (OSM)|UK|Non-Commercial|OSM is an open-source mapping project that has a large community of volunteer contributors and is the basis of many other mapping projects around the world. OSM is a non-profit entity sponsored by various universities and organizations. OSM does not track its users' activity. OSM allows and encourages their users to download its mapping databases, whereas commercial maps tend to limit data sharing through API funnels. OSM was made to be shared and built upon, so the core functionalities are intentionally basic.|
|Apple Maps|US|Commercial|Apple Maps is another popular mapping service that is pre-loaded on Apple devices. Apple Maps in China adheres to the Chinese government's data policy surrounding maps (e.g. using government-sanctioned names and territorial boundaries). Other mapping views include satellite and terrain views, 360 panoramic (Street View), “Flyover Views” and “City Tours” for certain places, among others.|
|Google Maps|US|Commercial|Google Maps is one of the most popular mapping services in the world. It supports over 54 languages and comes pre-loaded on many mobile devices. It tailors searches according to user histories and tracking networks, advertisers, and algorithmic ranking systems that are connected with Alphabet’s (Google’s parent company) larger suite of services. Different “user profiles” may prompt different mapping results. Google Maps is blocked in China, and therefore often lacks community contributions in that locality. Other mapping views include Google Earth (including satellite and terrain views), Rotation View (beta), 360 panoramic (Street View), Google Earth Virtual Reality (VR), and so forth.|
|Baidu Maps|China|Commercial|Due to China’s firewall, citizens have less access to other maps, thus locally made maps are often more detailed and contains more crowdsourced information. Baidu Maps is only available in Chinese and is commonly used in China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. Baidu Maps is blocked in India for “national security concerns”. Other mapping views include satellite views, 360 panoramic (Street View), and an “indoor view”.|
|QQ Tencent Map|China|Commercial|QQ Maps is another popular mapping service in China. The maps are available in Chinese and is particularly used in China, Taiwan and Hong Kong. Other mapping views include satellite imagery, 360 panoramic (Street View), and historical view.|
|Microsoft Bing|US|Commercial|Microsoft Bing is a popular mapping service that is supported in over 117 languages. Bing was previously banned in China, but has since been unblocked. Other mapping views include satellite, 360 panoramic (Street View), and venue maps (inside views of a location).|
|Yandex|Russia|Commercial|Yandex is a mapping service from Russia. It offers particularly detailed maps of Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Turkey, and Kazakhstan. It is available in English, Russian, Ukrainain, Kazakh, Belarusian, Bahasa Indonesia, and Tatar language. Other mapping views include satellite, 360 panoramic (Street View), and rotation view (mobile version).|
|[Native Land Maps](https://native-land.ca/) |Canada|Non-Commercial|Native Land Digital (Canadian nonprofit) provides a map of Indigenous territories, languages, and treaties. Comes with a guide on how to think critically about this particular map and beyond: https://native-land.ca/resources/teachers-guide/|
|Bhuvan|India|Government/Public|Bhuvan is a web-based utility that allows exploration of maps by the Indian Space Research Organisation. It is available in Hindi, English, Tamil, Telugu.|
|Qwant Maps (beta)|France|Commercial|Qwant Maps is launched by Qwant, a French search engine that positions itself as a privacy-respecting service that does not utilize user tracking or personalized search queries. Launched in 2019, Qwant Maps was a relative newcomer, but it builds on OSM databases. Qwant also launched Masq, an open-source technology that allows online services to offer personalized results from data securely stored on the user's device. Because Qwant is based in Europe, it adheres to European privacy laws including the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).|


Only a select few digital maps are included here but this might be a
good starting point to think about the peculiarities of any one map. Of
course, building your own map and using locally created maps are worth
considering where possible.

```cik-tip
```
>
> Through careful examinations of how maps are calibrated and crafted
> (e.g., the vertical & missing data) and who owns and creates maps
> (e.g., communities, commercial entities, or governments/jurisdictions,
> and in which languages) we can glean new insights and envision
> alternative representations of our messy, complex realities, in our
> investigations and beyond.
>


<br/>

## Maps and UnMaps

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/il/critical-maps-01-cik-illustration.png)


Maps and mapmaking can be used in countless ways — to inform, control,
resist or simply to better relate to our surroundings. This last section
is an exploration of some of the ways to use maps in an investigative
project. This list is non-exhaustive and overlapping, but it serves as a
starting point to explore what maps can do:

1. The Patterned Map
2. The Map of Reimagining
3. The Power Map
4. The Storytelling Map
5. The Real-Time Map of Protest


### The Patterned Map

**(Concerned with analysis)**

All maps contain information but some maps places patterns at the
forefront.

Some maps are static images that we use to navigate. Other maps might be
used more as a way of analysis, looking for patterns across space and
time. Maps can be compared, examined over time, and overlaid with data
in order to tease out trends, relationships, and patterns.

One example is Detroit Geographic Expedition’s map called _**[*Where Commuters Run Over Black Children on the Pointes-Downtown Track*](https://detroitography.com/2013/06/12/where-commuters-run-over-black-children-detroit-1968/)**_”
(see image below). This was part of a series of investigative projects
led by Gwendolyn Warren, which used a mixture of qualitative data,
ethnographic interviews, and personal testimonies to document the
disparities between the Black and White neighborhoods in the area. In
this particular map, Warren and a team of researchers set out to fill a
data void surrounding children’s death that were caused by car
accidents. By mapping data that was either nonexistent or not publicly
accessible, they demonstrated that accidents were clustered around
commuter traffic from wealthy White suburbs to Black neighborhoods. This
highlighted that there was a pattern with Black children’s deaths and
that each accident was not an isolated incident, but instead “indicative
that the spatial and racial injustice of the city leads to the bodily
harm of the most vulnerable members of its lower classes” (source: kanarinka, [*The Detroit Geographic Expedition and Institute: A Case Study in Civic Mapping*](https://civic.mit.edu/index.html%3Fp=220.html)” – MIT Center for Civic Media, accessed Dec. 14, 2020.)



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f18.png)
*Image: From Field Notes III: Geography of the Children of Detroit by the Detroit Geographical Expedition and Institute, 1971. Source:
<https://civic.mit.edu/index.html%3Fp=220.html>*

Another example is John Snow and Charles Cheffins’ [mapping of cholera outbreak](https://www.rcseng.ac.uk/library-and-publications/library/blog/mapping-disease-john-snow-and-cholera/)s in 19th century London (see image below). In the 1850s, cholera was
believed to be an airborne disease however John Snow, a physician at the
time, had a hunch it was transmitted through water. To investigate this,
he decided to map the cases of cholera in a particularly bad outbreak in
Soho, London. Using mortality report data from the Registrar General
Office in London and interviews with local residents, John Snow and
collaborators mapped out how deaths were clustered in the neighborhood.
The maps pointed to a link between cholera cases and a contaminated
water pump in which nearby residents were drinking from. These
documentations were eventually convincing enough to persuade the local
council to take action and for the medical profession at large to take
the waterborne theory of cholera seriously (see more in _**[this article](https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/mar/15/john-snow-cholera-map**_) by The Guardian.)



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f19.png)
*Image: Thematic map showing incidence of cholera as black bars (each bar represents a death from cholera), first shown at a meeting of the
London Epidemiological Society in 1854. Source: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1854_Broad_Street_cholera_outbreak>*

```cik-note
```
>
> **Note:**
>
> Remember to pay attention to the nuances of the particular case you
> are investigating when trying to discern patterns over space and time.
> See the ETI Kit on “[Using Maps to See Beyond the Obvious](https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/how/maps.html)” by
> Alison Kiling for examples of thematic mapping as well as datasets and base maps that are available.


### The Map of Reimagining

**(Concerned with mapping alternatives and counter-mapping)**

All maps imagine but some maps are intended to resist the status quo.

Since maps are constructed, they can be deconstructed and reconstructed.
Some maps serve to reimagine borders, territories, and places. Maps can
also rectify what was not mapped in the past, map an alternative future,
or imagine the present along different terms.

For instance, the [*Detroit Geographic Expedition*](https://detroitography.com/tag/detroit-geographic-expedition-institute/)
placed particular emphasis on “oughtness maps”, a map of how things are
and of how things ought to (should) be. In their first publication - [*Field Notes I*](https://antipodeonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/dgei_fieldnotes-i.pdf) - they remind us that “afterall, it is not the function of geographers
to merely map the earth, but to change it” (see more about the [Detroit
Geographic Expedition](https://detroitography.com/tag/detroit-geographic-expedition-institute/)
“Field Notes” [here](https://antipodeonline.org/2017/02/23/dgei-field-notes/).)

Various Indigenous mapping projects in particular have sought to counter
mainstream mapping narratives. This is especially due to how the history
of cartography has contributed to the dispossession of Indigenous
Peoples’ territories and languages. One example is the _**[Native Land Digital project](https://native-land.ca/)**_, which uses community
contributions to map out Indigenous lands, Settler-Indigenous relations, histories, treaties, and more (see image below.)

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f20.png)
*Image: Native Land (Canadian Nonprofit) a living map of Indigenous territories, languages, and treaties. Source: <https://native-land.ca/>*

Similarly, many borders and territories are arbitrarily carved out,
especially during times of colonialisation. The [*Secret Countries*](https://chimurengachronic.co.za/secret-countries/)” section
of the cartographic issue of the _**[Chimurenga Chronical](https://chimurengachronic.co.za/)**_ envisions an alternative mapping of the continent of Africa. Inspired by Archille Mbembe’s [*At the Edge of World: Boundaries, Territoriality, and Sovereignty in Africa*](https://muse.jhu.edu/article/26186), it moves beyond nation state representations of Africa, and instead offers other arrangements and depictions of Africa where territories are tied together through shared history, trade, and other flows.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f21.png)
*Image source: <https://chimurengachronic.co.za/secret-countries/>*


### The Power Map

**(Concerned with mapping relationships)**

All maps are relational but some maps places networks at the center.

Power mapping or relational mapping is also a way of analysis, but it is
more specific and often used by organizers, activists, and investigators
to identify who has what type of power in a community. These maps help
locate relevant parties, including allies and decision-makers. Power
maps can look different according to their purpose.

For example, the _**[Anti-Eviction Mapping Project](https://antievictionmap.com/)**_ produced a community power map of
Oakland in the United States, “a city that has historically faced disinvestment”. It presents a map of who and what the community values,
as well as what threatens their place during this time of city development.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f22.jpg)
*Source: Anti-Eviction project: <https://antievictionmap.com/>*

```cik-tip
```
>
> Read more about this topic in:
>
> - [Power Mapping and Analysis](https://commonslibrary.org/guide-power-mapping-and-analysis/) -
> The Commons (commonslibrary.org)
>
> - [Power mapping](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_mapping), (Wikipedia)



### The Storytelling Map

**(Concerned with communicating)**

All maps have stories, but some maps have storytelling as its main
focus.

Various strands of investigative projects have emphasized the need to
humanize data, especially in our data-saturated world (read more about
data saturation in Danah Boyd and K. Crawford, _**[*Critical Questions for Big Data*](https://people.cs.kuleuven.be/~bettina.berendt/teaching/ViennaDH15/boyd_crawford_2012.pdf)**_, Information, Communication & Society, pp. 662–679, May 2012 - full
article [here](https://people.cs.kuleuven.be/~bettina.berendt/teaching/ViennaDH15/boyd_crawford_2012.pdf).)
This extends to cartographic data. Storytelling through maps can help
embed the realities of data, communicate difficult to understand
concepts, and assist in conveying the scale or severity of an issue.

For instance, _**[*Views from the North Atlas*](http://viewsfromthenorth.ca/index.html)**_ a joint project by the
Inuit training program _**[Nunavut Sivuniksavut](https://www.nunavutsivuniksavut.ca/about-us)**_ and [Carleton University](https://carleton.ca/) in Ottawa, presents an exploration of Inuit histories in Canada (see image below). Here, interviews between
Nunavut Sivuniksavut students and elders from their home communities are
situated alongside photographs, archival materials, and cartographic
features in order to foster a living map of Inuit culture.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f23.png)
*Image source: <http://viewsfromthenorth.ca/>*

In *Narratives of Displacement and Resistance* the [Anti-Eviction
Mapping Project](http://www.antievictionmappingproject.net/narratives.html)
presents incidents of eviction along with oral histories in several US
cities (see image below.) Each red dot represents a case of eviction that
occurred, and each turquoise dot has an interview accompaniment.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f24.png)
*Image “Narratives of Displacement and Resistance” by the Anti-Eviction Mapping Project. Source:
<http://www.antievictionmappingproject.net/narratives.html>*

Likewise, geographer and artist Levi Westerveld’s _**[*Those Who Did Not Cross*](https://visionscarto.net/those-who-did-not-cross)**_ maps those who
lost their lives at sea while trying to reach European shores from
2005 to 2015 (see image below). Here, the destination countries are flattened
into a black coastline or into what one might see looking onto the
horizon. Lines of text attempt to contextualize the tragedies that
occurred.


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f25.jpg)
*Image: Levi Westerveld’s map of Those Who Did Not Cross (2005–15). Source: <https://visionscarto.net/those-who-did-not-cross>*

And, Visualizing Palestine's infographic of the Israel government’s ID system, informed by Helga
Tawil-Souri’s work, disentangles one aspect of how this larger system
controls, stratifies and controls various Palestinian communities (see
image below and Helga Tawil-Souri’s article [*Uneven Borders, Coloured (Im)mobilities: ID Cards in Palestine/Israel*](https://doi.org/10.1215/01642472-1259488), Social Text (2011) 29 (2(107)): 67–97.)


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f26.png)
*Image: Infograph by VisualizingPalestine.org: visualisation of the Complex ID Matrix informed by Helga Tawil-Souri. Source <https://visualizingpalestine.org/visual/identity-crisis-the-israeli-id-system/>.*


### The Real-Time Map of Protest

**(Concerned with mapping the now)**

All maps are entangled in a certain time period but some maps are meant
to be ephemeral.

Resistance is threaded through all of the above – including resisting
information voids, resisting through narratives, and resisting borders.
The above maps are also acts of resistance in themselves with how they
reveal the multitude of injustices that may not be visible in our daily
lives. Another type of map that takes resistance at center stage is the
real-time maps of protests.

Protest maps are maps that accompany protests and conflicts in real-time
where it is important to share information, document what is happening,
and organize logistics of a movement as it unfolds. Some examples
include the _**[Hong Kong Live Map](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HKmap.live)**_ platform that accompanied
the waves of protests in Hong Kong during 2019-2020 (see image below).
Here, clashes between protestors and police were documented through
crowdsourced data and faded away as soon as the incident ended.


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f27.jpg)
*Image: Hong Kong Live Map that mapped in real time the 2019-2020 city-wide protests in Hong Kong. Source:
<https://twitter.com/hkmaplive/status/1265414473181003776/photo/1>*


```cik-example
```
>
> See also the _**[ETI Kit’s OSINT piece about ScanMap](https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/what/osint-ocean.html)**_,
> a real-time map that emerged during the Black Lives Matter protests in
> the summer of 2020 (see image below). Built by activist group [Radio12](https://radio12.org/) with
> Open Source Intelligence (OSINT) techniques, [ScanMap](https://scanmap.mobi/) is a
> free and accessible tool that maps hotspots of protest, police
> location and key points of blockades in various cities.
>
>![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f28.png)
> *Screenshot from: <https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/what/osint-ocean.html>*
>


These maps were made to be used at a specific time and meant to be
fleeting. As such, maps do not have to be permanent, and these serve as
a reminder about how map design can be more intentional.

For instance, digital maps often extract data from users and having a
centralized storage of personal data might pose a risk in terms of data
leaks or in terms of government requests where law enforcement may gain
access to data that is collected. If you are designing your own maps, be
considerate of what data (or partial data) you store and whether you are
putting anyone (including yourself) in danger.

<br/>

## Stay critical

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/il/critical-maps-02-cik-illustration.png)


> “We use maps to find our way in the world, to locate ourselves in relation to others, to measure distance and record change. Maps are inherently contextual, which can make them seem old-fashioned in a culture that values immediacy, one that operates through image and spectacle. The image is a mask, a face, a front, an arrow. The map is its opposite, not an index of the world but a way of relating to it.” (Taiyon J. Coleman, 2017, [*Poems as Maps: An Introduction*](https://placesjournal.org/series/poems-as-maps/), in <https://placesjournal.org/>).

Maps can reveal and hide. They can reinforce but also reimagine. As we
incorporate, build and consult maps in our research and investigations, we need to remember to
keep a careful, critical eye on how these maps are summarizing space and time.

What visions of the world will your maps hold?

<br/>

<hr class="thick">

_Published October 2021_

<br/>


## Resources

#### Articles and Studies


- _[Cartographic Abstraction in Contemporary Art: Seeing with Maps](https://www.clairereddleman.com/chapters-of-cartographic-abstraction-in-contemporary-art-seeing-with-maps)_, book by Claire Reddleman, 2017 Routledge.

- _[CORE](https://core.ac.uk/)_ - a large collection of open access research papers.

- _[Critical Questions for Big Data](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1369118X.2012.678878)_, by Danah Boyd and K. Crawford in 'Information, Communication & Society', pp. 662–679, May 2012.

- _[Crowdsourced geospatial data quality: challenges and future directions](https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10074777/1/IJGIS%20Editorial%2004032019ABMH.pdf)_ by A. Basiri, M. Haklay, G. Foody, and P. Mooney, International Journal
of Geographical Information Science, vol. 33, no. 8, pp. 1588–1593, Aug. 2019, doi: 10.1080/13658816.2019.1593422.

- _[Decolonizing the Map: Recentering Indigenous Mappings](https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/full/10.3138/cart.53.3.intro)_, by R. Rose-Redwood, N. Blu Barnd, A. H. Lucchesi, S. Dias, and W. Patrick, in Cartographica vol. 55, no. 3, pp. 151–162, Sep. 2020, doi: 10.3138/cart.53.3.intro.

- _[Delivery Platform Algorithms Don’t Work Without Drivers’ Deep Local Knowledge](https://slate.com/technology/2020/12/gojek-grab-indonesia-delivery-platforms-algorithms.html)_, by R. Qadri, Slate Magazine, Dec. 28, 2020 (accessed Jan. 13, 2021.)

- _[Digital occupation: Gaza's high-tech enclosure](https://web.archive.org/web/20210726200358/https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/journals/jps/v41i2/f_0025106_20500.pdf)_, by Tawil-Souri, H. in Journal of Palestine Studies, 41(2), 27-43, 2012.

- _[Favelas and the divided city: mapping silences and calculations in Rio de Janeiro’s journalistic cartography](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263556301_Favelas_and_the_divided_city_Mapping_silences_and_calculations_in_Rio_de_Janeiro%27s_journalistic_cartography)_, by A. R. Novaes, Social & Cultural Geography, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 201–225, 2014.

- _['From My Point of View': documentary](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/films/from-my-point-of-view-film)_, including [these interviews](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/interviews/hagit-diy-mapping-and-reclaiming) about aerial mapping.

- _[General Cartography syllabus](https://www.eiilmuniversity.co.in/downloads/General_Cartography.pdf)_, from Eiilm University (archived with Wayback Machine [here](https://web.archive.org/web/20210926125211/https://www.eiilmuniversity.co.in/downloads/General_Cartography.pdf).)

- _[Here Be Dragons](https://www.vqronline.org/essays-articles/2017/01/here-be-dragons)_, VQR Online, accessed Jan. 14, 2021.

- _[How to Map Nothing](https://placesjournal.org/article/how-to-map-nothing/)_, by Shannon Mattern, March 202, on
placesjournal.org.

- _[Indigenous  data sovereignty: Toward an agenda](https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n2140/pdf/book.pdf)_, by T. Kukutai and J. Taylor, Anu Press, 2016. (archived on Wayback Machine [here.](https://web.archive.org/web/20211026175552/https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n2140/pdf/book.pdf))

- _[Indians Don't Make Maps’: Indigenous Cartographic Traditions and Innovations](https://www.academia.edu/43560408/_Indians_Dont_Make_Maps_Indigenous_Cartographic_Traditions_and_Innovations)_ by A. Lucchesi, American Indian Culture and Research
Journal, vol. 42, no. 3, pp. 11–26.

- _[Maps show – and hide – key information about Ukraine war](https://theconversation.com/maps-show-and-hide-key-information-about-ukraine-war-179069)_ by Timothy Barney, The Conversation, 21 March 2022. (Archived with Wayback Machine [here](https://web.archive.org/web/20220322161249/https://theconversation.com/maps-show-and-hide-key-information-about-ukraine-war-179069))

- _[Mikel Maron: Crowdsourcing satellite imagery to document deforestation](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/articles/logging-roads-mikel-maron/)_, in Exposing the Invisible, Tactical Tech.

- _[Missing Datasets](https://mimionuoha.com/the-library-of-missing-datasets)_, by Mimi Onuoha. 2020.

- _[On ethnographic refusal: Indigeneity, ‘voice’ and colonial citizenship](https://pages.ucsd.edu/~rfrank/class_web/ES-270/SimpsonJunctures9.pdf)_, by A. Simpson in 'Junctures: The Journal for Thematic Dialogue', no. 9, 2007 (archived with Wayback Machine [here.](https://web.archive.org/web/20211031102633/https://pages.ucsd.edu/~rfrank/class_web/ES-270/SimpsonJunctures9.pdf))

- _[The Detroit Geographic Expedition and Institute: A Case Study in Civic Mapping](https://civic.mit.edu/index.html%3Fp=220.html)_, by Catherine D’Ignazio (Kanarinka.com).

- _[Secure the volume: Vertical geopolitics and the depth of power](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271581542_Secure_the_volume_Vertical_geopolitics_and_the_depth_of_power)_, by S. Elden in Political Geography, vol. 34, pp. 35–51, 2013.

- _[Silences and secrecy: the hidden agenda of cartography in early modern Europe](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03085698808592639)_, by J. B. Harley, Imago mundi, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 57–76, 1988.

- _[Starting Satellite Investigations](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/guides/starting-satellite-investigations/)_, in Exposing the Invisible, Tactical Tech.

- _[Super-tall, super-skinny, super-expensive: the ‘pencil towers’ of New York’s super-rich](https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2019/feb/05/super-tall-super-skinny-super-expensive-the-pencil-towers-of-new-yorks-super-rich)_, by O. Wainwright, in The Guardian, Feb. 05, 2019.

- _[The Highs and Lows of Asserting Tribal Airspace Sovereignty](https://web.archive.org/web/20210726202040/https://repository.asu.edu/attachments/216876/content/Knight_asu_0010N_18894.pdf)_, by Shelly Lynn Knight, 2019.

- _[The politics of verticality. Introduction to The Politics of Verticality](https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/article_801jsp/)_, by E.
Weizman in OpenDemocracy.net, April 2002.

- _[To what extent can online mapping be decolonial? A journey throughout Indigenous cartography in Canada](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339414491_To_what_extent_can_online_mapping_be_decolonial_A_journey_throughout_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada)_ by T. J. McGurk and S. Caquard in 'The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien', vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 49–64, 2020, doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/cag.12602.




## Glossary

### term-3dmodelling

**3D modelling** - the process of developing a 3D representation of an
object or place using specialized software.

### term-ar

**Augmented reality (AR)** - a way of enhancing an environment by
superimposing computer-generated information on top of the real world.

### term-critical-cartography

**Critical Cartography** and **Critical Geography** - more generally is
a wide field of practices grounded in critical theory and the starting
point that maps are not objective and instead, reflects and perpetuate
relations of power. See: [Antipode Online](https://antipodeonline.org/) and [The Occupied Times – Critical
Cartography](https://theoccupiedtimes.org/?p=13771).

### term-decolonial-mapping

**Decolonial and Postcolonial mapping** - seeks to resist maps and
map-making legacies that stem from settler colonialism and imperial
projects. **Indigenous mapping** in particular seeks to recenter
Indigenous mappings and cartographies as spatial practices of
world-making; a practice that has a long history. See: [Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization: Vol 55, No 3 (utpjournals.press)](https://www.utpjournals.press/toc/cart/55/3) and [The Decolonial Atlas (wordpress.com)](https://decolonialatlas.wordpress.com/).

### term-lidar

**Lidar** - a method for calculating ranges by targeting an object with
a laser and measuring the time for the reflected light to return to the
receiver.

### term-oughtness-maps

**Oughtness Maps** - a term that emerged from the Detroit Geographic
Expedition which refers to maps that present “how things ought to be.”

### term-photogrammetry

**Photogrammetry** - the process of extracting 3D information from photographs.

### term-radical-cartography

**Radical cartography** - the practice of mapmaking that aims to subvert
the status quo and promote social change. Radical referring to grasping
at the root of the problem. See: [View of The Search for a Radical Cartography / Cartographic Perspectives](https://cartographicperspectives.org/index.php/journal/article/view/6/14#:~:text=The%20editors%2C%20however%2C%20go%20on,to%20actively%20promote%20social%20change.&text=Some%20of%20the%20maps%20are,variety%20of%20approaches%20to%20mapmaking.) and [An Atlas of Radical Cartography](http://www.an-atlas.com/)

### term-remote-sensing

**Remote sensing** - the process of gathering information about an object of phenomenon is done without physical contact with the object.

### term-vertical

**Vertical** - refers to the right angles to a horizontal plane; the direction or alignment of being upwards and downwards.

### term-volumetric

**Volumetric** - refers to thinking in terms of measures of volume of a
city (rather than of area), for instance the density or compactness of
activities in a given urban space. Read more: [Volumetric Sovereignty (societyandspace.org).](https://www.societyandspace.org/forums/volumetric-sovereignty)

### term-vr

**Virtual Reality (VR)** - the creation of a simulated environment.
# Thinking Critically About Maps: Researching, Resisting and Re-imagining the World

By Yung Au

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/il/critical-maps-cik-illustration.png)

```cik-in-short
```
**IN SHORT:** Thinking critically about maps is not just about being conscious of potential harms and biases that maps can sometimes reveal, but also a way of investigation itself. New insights, perspectives and vantage points are gained when we challenge dominant perspectives about geographies and locations. This is a case-based guide on how to critically “read” and use maps for investigation, resistance and more.

## The many Norths


Maps in Chinese are called 地圖 or “portrait of earth”, and there are
certainly many ways to paint our world (and beyond.)

The online Cambridge Dictionary _**[defines maps](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/map)**_ as “a
drawing that represents a region or place by showing the various
features of it.” Maps might present to the viewer a sprawling megacity,
a network of underground tunnels or the contours and currents of a
rambling river. However, as representations of our infinitely complex
word, maps are inherently political, subjective, and imperfect. They
contain multitudes. 

This piece aims to build on _**[other ETI Kit guides](https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/how/maps.html)**_
describing what maps can be, what we should be attuned to when we use
and build them and how they can further investigations and awareness.

Thinking critically about maps is not just about being conscious of
potential harms and pitfalls that come with them, it is also a method of
investigation itself. When we question commonly held ideas and points of
view, we gain new insights in the process.

As we unfold the maps we rely on, it is important to remember that maps,
like [other types](https://medium.com/@ODSC/9-common-mistakes-that-lead-to-data-bias-a121580c7d1f)
of [data](https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/calendar/what-data-bias-and-why-should-journalists-pay-attention-it),
have inherent biases. Maps attempt to summarize the infinitely complex
time and space we live in and are necessarily - and often usefully -
reductive, or simplified in some way.

Flat maps, for example, are always “[projected](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Map_projection&oldid=998264457)”
in _**[certain ways](https://www.vqronline.org/essays-articles/2017/01/here-be-dragons)**_,
where projections are ways to flatten the 3D globe into a 2D format (see
images below). This happens because earth is a sphere suspended in space
where there is no objective "up", "down", or "center." Therefore, every
projection reflects a deliberate set of choices decided by the
cartographer(s) and guided by certain point of views. As such,
projections have always been controversial.

One of today’s most widely used projections is the _**[*Mercator projection*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercator_projection)**_, which is
most commonly attributed to a Flemish geographer, Gerardus Mercator, in 1569. In this projection, Europe is placed at the center of the map and
the continent of Africa is distorted to look smaller than Greenland when
in reality, it is 14.5 times larger (see image below).



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f2.png)



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f3.png)



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f4.png)
*Screenshots from [thetruesize.com](http://thetruesize.com), an
interactive website that compares a country's real size which is
distorted by the Mercator projection.*


Even the parts of a map many people take for granted aren’t always
straightforward. For instance, we might be accustomed to a single
“north” that guides us and orients a map the “right way up”. However,
many norths exist, including:

- **True North:** The northern most point on the spherical earth
(which is distorted when looking at flat maps).

- **Grid north:** The north that runs upwards alongside the grid lines
on a flat map.

- **Magnetic North:** The north as indicated by a compass; the
magnetic fields that “pull” a compass’ magnet is influenced by solar
winds and the earth’s rotation, and as such, are not necessarily
situated at the northernmost point of earth at any given time. This
point regularly shifts; sometimes closer to Canada, other times
traversing towards Russia.

- **Google Maps’ North:** There is also an increasing recognition of a
“Google Maps’ North” due to the platform’s prevalence where their
north is adjusted for their particular projection used.



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f5.gif)
*Screenshot of shifting magnetic north. Source:
<https://www.forbes.com/sites/trevornace/2019/02/05/earths-magnetic-north-pole-has-officially-moved/?sh=198e7aa36862>*

Whether created by meteorologists or tech corporations, our maps vary
according to who made them and who they are intended for. Our realities
are calibrated to the mapmaker’s truths. There are entire fields of
study dedicated to the idea that maps are not objective. Approaches such
as “Decolonial Mapping”, “Indigenous Mapping” and “Radical/Critical
Cartography” in particular examine the many implications of presenting
our multi-dimensional realities on a piece of parchment or flat screen
for instance.


```cik-note
```
>
> **“Decolonial Mapping”, “Indigenous Mapping” and “Radical/Critical
> Cartography”**
>
> These spheres of knowledge production have various definitions and
> often overlap but some simple definitions would be:
>
>- Decolonial and Postcolonial Mapping seeks to resist maps and
> map-making legacies that stem from settler colonialism and imperial
> projects.
>
> - Indigenous Mapping in particular seeks to recenter
> Indigenous mappings and cartographies as spatial practices of
> world-making; a practice that has a long history. See:
> [*Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization*](https://utpjournals.press/loi/cart), Vol 55, No 3
> (utpjournals.press), and _**[*The Decolonial Atlas.*](https://decolonialatlas.wordpress.com/)**_
>
>- Radical Cartography is the practice of map-making that aims to
> subvert the status quo and promote social change. Radical referring
> to grasping at the root of the problem. See: [*The Search for a Radical Cartography - Cartographic
> Perspectives*](https://cartographicperspectives.org/index.php/journal/article/view/cp68-denil)
> and [*An Atlas of Radical Cartography.*](http://www.an-atlas.com/)
>
>- [Critical Cartography](#term-critical-cartography) and Critical Geography more generally is a wide
> field of practices grounded in _**[critical theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_theory)**_, with the
> starting point that maps are not objective and instead, reflects and
> perpetuate relations of power. See: [*Antipode Online*](https://antipodeonline.org/) (for publications of the
> radical geography community) and [*The Occupied Times – Critical Cartography.*](https://theoccupiedtimes.org/?p=13771)


However, despite these inherent shortcomings, these bodies of work also
remind us that maps and map-making are often central to investigations,
storytelling, resistance, governance efforts and daily life. They can
enforce territorial claims, empower communities and erase certain
realities. Maps can also take on many forms - on paper, in virtual
space, or even _**[as words](https://placesjournal.org/series/poems-as-maps/)**_ - as long as
they help situate oneself in the wider world.



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f1.png)
*Examples of popular map projections. Source: <https://map-projections.net/singleview.php> (you can explore more
“projections” here <https://decolonialatlas.wordpress.com/category/alternative-projections/>)*


<br/>

## The critical map

Now that we’ve clarified that maps are not completely objective, how can we think critically about maps when conducting research and investigation?
This section presents some examples of mapping elements to break down for new insights:

- The Vertical and Beyond

- Missing Data

- Careful Crowdsourcing

- Mapping Infrastructures and Authorities

### The vertical and beyond

Maps are often flat and presented with a
[bird’s-eye-view](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird%27s-eye_view). This
is great for convenience, but it is important to remember that these
orientations are not fixed and can be adjusted for further insights.
Think, for instance, of the top-down view of mapping compressing our
multi-tiered world into a single layer, collapsing certain nuances on
the vertical axes of life.

The spaces we inhabit always extend vertically and volumetrically.

```cik-note
```
>
> **Vertical** refers to the direction or alignment of being upwards and
> downwards; the right angles to a horizontal plane.
>
> **Volumetric** refers to thinking in terms of measurements through the
> volume of a city (rather than of area), for instance the density or
> compactness of activities in a given urban space. Read more at
> [*Volumetric Sovereignty*](https://www.societyandspace.org/forums/volumetric-sovereignty).
>


For example, Hong Kong contains some of the most vertical and voluminous
localities in the world. Home to some of the busiest and densest square
miles, social life is built in and around the mountainous and oceanic
terrains that underlies the city. With winding underpasses that turn
into overpasses, miles of continuous elevated footpaths and outdoor
escalators, and with life teeming from the sub-terrain layers to the
rooftops of skyscrapers, the urban sprawl is not easily captured in the
flat map (see image below).



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f5.png)
*Images of Hong Kong, by Yung Au*

Here, charting the nuances along these axes of life is often important.

```cik-example
```
>
> See for example, the investigations into the [Kowloon Walled City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kowloon_Walled_City), a settlement
> in Hong Kong that was demolished in 1993 due to safety concerns. It
> was best known for its later years as a dense and haphazard enclave
> where by 1990 it was home to 50,000 residents within its 2.7 hectare
> borders. Formidable, unruly and crowded, Kowloon Walled City
> constituted of 500 interconnected high-rise building, living quarters,
> shops, classrooms and other structures, stacked haphazardly on top of
> each other. The settlement grew organically without any one particular
> architect and came under the control of various triads and families
> over the years.
>
> Investigations into the Walled City required attention to the stacked,
> vertical nature of these interwoven structures. See for example,
> below, the hyper-detailed maps published in 1997 by Japanese
> anthropologist, Kani Hioraki and a team of researchers. Collapsing the
> vertical axis here meant omitting a great deal of the uneven, overlaid
> labyrinthine structure of the settlement and the lives that stretched
> upwards. Likewise, modern day recreations of the Walled City attend
> carefully to its precarious, stacked nature - including how, despite
> the disorder, all the buildings were arranged to be just under 14
> floors to avoid the low flying planes that landed at the nearby
> airport, and how the extensive water system consisting of 77 wells,
> rooftop tanks and electric pumps were organized to allow water to
> trickle down to reach its inhabitants.
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f8-1.jpg)
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f8-2.jpg)
>
> *Images: 1997 illustrations of the Kowloon Walled City by Japanese
> researchers led by anthropologist Kani Hioraki (published in Daizukai
> Kyuryujo, 1997)*
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f9.jpg)
> *Image: a depiction of the Kowloon walled city which illustrates how
> important it is to pay attention to the vertical axis and the
> difficulties of flattening a map. Image source:
> <https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/article/1191748/kowloon-walled-city-life-city-darkness?utm_medium=website&utm_source=archdaily.com>*
>


As such, during an investigation it might be good to **ask whether the
vertical, volumetric aspects of the environment might be important** (also
see S. Elden, [*Secure the volume: Vertical geopolitics and the depth of power*](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271581542_Secure_the_volume_Vertical_geopolitics_and_the_depth_of_power), Political Geography, vol. 34, pp. 35–51, 2013.).

Some starting questions to ask are:

- **What dimensions and details might be missing in a flat, bird-eye-view map?**

- **Are the uneven topographies, elevation, and city structures important in this investigation?** In movements, conflicts and clashes, the vertical elements are often important, for instance:

- see Củ Chi tunnels used during the 1955 – 1975 US and Vietnam
War ([Củ Chi tunnels - Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%E1%BB%A7_Chi_tunnels)
and figure below);

- see the multi-level occupation of the West Bank as examined by
Eyal Weizman in [*The Politics of Verticality*](https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/article_801jsp/) (also see [a lecture on the
topic](https://forensic-architecture.org/programme/events/the-politics-of-verticality-the-architecture-of-warfare-in-the-west-bank))
and Helga Tawil Souri in [*Digital occupation: Gaza's high-tech
enclosure*](https://web.archive.org/web/20210726200358/https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/journals/jps/v41i2/f_0025106_20500.pdf) -
from the strategic locations of valleys and mountains in the landscape to the politics of water, sewage, and militarization of airspace;

- see the 2019-2020 [city-wide protests in Hong Kong](https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/12/16/hong-kongs-protest-movement-and-the-fight-for-the-citys-soul) that adapted to all levels of the city from the underground train stations to skyscrapers.

- **Are there elements of conflicts over [air-space](https://web.archive.org/web/20210726202040/https://repository.asu.edu/attachments/216876/content/Knight_asu_0010N_18894.pdf) or sea-space in the investigation?** These are becoming increasingly important arenas to pay attention to as our [urban expansions continue](https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2019/feb/05/super-tall-super-skinny-super-expensive-the-pencil-towers-of-new-yorks-super-rich)up and downwards – from drone warfare to “[air rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_rights)” (rights to control and develop unused airspace above a real estate property.)


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f10.jpg)
*Image: “SUBTERRANEAN FOES: The fighting women of the Cu Chi tunnels", by Erik Pauser. Source: https://www.cabinetmagazine.org/issues/30/pauser.php*

These questions require a nuanced understanding of the case in question.
As such, **it is in your advantage to be intimately familiar with the
locality you are investigating**, or be collaborating with local
individuals and organizations as there might be important details
armchair research might miss out.

```cik-example
```
>
> **Advanced tools and examples of using them to investigate:**
>
> Advanced tools to investigate the three-dimensional [(3D)](#term-3dmodelling) world are
> becoming increasingly accessible and affordable. This includes remote
> sensing, 3D modelling, [photogrammetry](#term-photogrammetry), [Lidar](#term-lidar) scanners (which are
> beginning to be integrated with iPhone cameras), [Virtual Reality (VR)](#term-vr)
> and [Augmented Reality (AR)](#term-ar). See investigations from the research
> agency _**[Forensic Architecture](https://forensic-architecture.org/)**_,
> where these tools are utilized alongside other methods to explore
> multiple dimensions in a given case.
>
> These are basic definitions of the main processes and tools involved
> with 3D methods and analysis:
>
>- **Remote sensing** - is the process of gathering information about
> an object of phenomenon is done without physical contact with the
> object.
>
>- **3D modelling** - is the process of developing a 3D representation
> of an object or place using specialized software
>
>- **Photogrammetry** - is the process of extracting 3D information
> from photographs.
>
>- **Lidar -** is a method for calculating ranges by targeting an
> object with a laser and measuring the time for the reflected light
> to return to the receiver.
>
>- **Virtual Reality (VR)** - is the creation of a simulated
> environment.
>
>- **Augmented reality (AR)** - is a way of enhancing an environment by
> superimposing computer-generated information on top of the real
> world.
>
> At Forensic Architecture, 3D modelling
> (physical or digital), VR and photogrammetry methods are used to
> better examine the landscape from images, camera positions, how events
> unfolded relative to one another. Understanding the perspectives of
> any given source is useful to establish what was within the frame and
> what remains outside – giving “investigators a fuller picture of how
> much is known, or not, about the incident they are studying”
> ([Forensic Architecture](https://forensic-architecture.org/methodology/3d-modelling).)
>
> 3D modelling was used as part of their investigation on
> “[Environmental Racism in Death Alley, Louisiana](https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/environmental-racism-in-death-alley-louisiana)”
> (1718-Ongoing) in partnership with RISE St. James (see images below).
> Here they reconstructed an interactive 3D representation of a
> ‘typical’ sugarcane plantation in the lower Mississippi River. Based
> from a composite of several plantations and cartographic evidence,
> along with historical archives, property surveys, interview
> transcripts and other data, the 3D representations helped communicate
> the scales and the logics of these plantations which “was at once
> industrial facility, farm, prison, death camp, and luxury estate”.
>
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f12.png)
>
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f11.png)
> *Source: [Forensic Architecture](https://forensic-architecture.org/),
> “[Environmental Racism in Death Alley,
> Louisiana](https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/environmental-racism-in-death-alley-louisiana)”:
> https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/environmental-racism-in-death-alley-louisiana*
>
> Virtual Reality (VR) is used in their investigation into “[The Killing of Mark
> Duggan](https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/the-killing-of-mark-duggan)”
> (see image below.) As part of a civil claim against the UK’s
> Metropolitan Police, Forensic Architecture developed a VR environment
> that emulated the event as it unfolded to illustrate the various
> inconsistency in police testimonies.
>
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f13.png)
> *Source: [Forensic Architecture](https://forensic-architecture.org/),
> “The Killing Of Mark Duggan”: <https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/the-killing-of-mark-duggan>*
>
> Photogrammetry was used in their investigation into the “[Destruction
> and Return in Al-Araqib](https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/destruction-and-return-in-al-araqib)”
> (see figure x). Forensic Architecture collaborated with local
> families, Zochrot and PublicLab to collect evident on the history of
> the village of al-Araqib in the northern Naqab desert. Synthesizing
> aerial footage, archaeological survey, images taken from cameras
> suspended from kites, and photogrammetry, they launched a navigable
> digital platform that documents the expulsion, destruction, but also
> the ongoing life and resistance in the region.
>
> This platform aims to support a legal petition by the al-Tūri family
> of al-Araqib.
>
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f14.png)
> *Source: [Forensic Architecture](https://forensic-architecture.org/),
> “Destruction and Return in al-Araqib”: <https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/destruction-and-return-in-al-araqib>*
>


In sum, new insights might be possible in a careful examination of
space. Social lives sprawl across all sorts of directions - what are we
missing in our fixation of the horizon?


### Missing data

While it may seem that we have thoroughly scoured the corners of our
world, many things remain unmapped, unrecorded and obscured. For
example, much of our oceans are still unexplored — while Google Maps
uses infra-red modelling to infer contour lines on the ocean floors, and
this is still only an approximation. See more about this in _**[*Here Be
Dragons. Finding the Blank Spaces in a Well-Mapped World*](https://www.vqronline.org/essays-articles/2017/01/here-be-dragons)**_ by [Lois Parshley.](https://www.vqronline.org/people/lois-parshley)

Writing about the wider world of missing data, Nigerian-American artist
and researcher [Mimi Ọnụọha](https://mimionuoha.com/) states that blank
spots often “exist in spaces that are otherwise data-saturated,” and
that a lack of data “typically correlates with issues affecting those
who are most vulnerable in that context” (see _**[*Missing Datasets*](https://mimionuoha.com/the-library-of-missing-datasets)**_ by Mimi
Onuoha. 2020.).

**What might our maps be missing and what can this tell us?**

The late British geographer [J.B. Harley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brian_Harley) was
particularly fixated on this question and wrote about what he called
“cartographic silence” in maps — where blank spots are not necessarily
the result of mistakes, ignorance, or technical issues, but rather part
of the map itself where “silence can reveal as much as it conceals” (see
more in “Cartographic Abstraction in Contemporary Art: Seeing with
Maps”, by Claire Reddleman - book published in 2017 by Routledge - also
available here: <https://www.clairereddleman.com/chapters-of-cartographic-abstraction-in-contemporary-art-seeing-with-maps>).
For instance, colonial maps of the Americas often erased Indigenous
locations and names as a way of showing that these lands were
“available” for settlement (see [Anita Lucchesi](https://www.annitalucchesi.com/) [*'Indians Don't Make Maps': Indigenous Cartographic Traditions and
Innovations*](https://doi.org/10.17953/aicrj.42.3.lucchesi), American
Indian Culture and Research Journal, 42(3), 2018; and  J. B. Harley,
[*Silences and secrecy: the hidden agenda of cartography in early modern
Europe*](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03085698808592639), Imago Mundi, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 57–76, 1988.

Likewise, in 2014, Brazilian geography scholar André Reyes Novaes argued
that Rio de Janeiro’s official maps mostly ignored the city’s informal
*favela* neighborhoods until the 1990s where this “silencing” was
indicative of the indifferent attitude of the political elites towards
favelas – the omission being a way of flattening the complexity and
humanity of life in these settlements (see A. R. Novaes, [*Favelas and
the divided city: mapping silences and calculations in Rio de Janeiro’s
journalistic cartography*](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14649365.2013.872285), in Social & Cultural Geography, vol. 15, no.
2, pp. 201–225, 2014.)

Mapping the unmapped is then a way of investigation, activism and
resistance. For example, formed in the mid-70s, _**[Unnayan](http://www.an-atlas.com/contents/unn_sen.html)**_ was a
collective of “radical planners” in Kolkata (formerly Calcutta, the
capital of India's West Bengal state) who mapped missing spaces as part
of their fight for dwelling rights for the working poor (see image
below). They sought to place on the map the various unauthorized
settlements that were labelled as vacant land on government issued maps.
With the community of dwellers, they created maps that made these
settlements visible, which also helped implement and document water
systems, drainage schemes and roadways. These maps became an important
part of gaining recognitions for housing rights at the national and
international levels (see Unnayan / Jai Sen: <http://www.an-atlas.com/contents/unn_sen.html>.)


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f15.png)
*Source: “An Atlas of Radical Cartography”: <http://www.an-atlas.com/contents/unn_sen.html>*

Different maps will have different information voids. For an
illustration of this, see Sterling Quinn’s work on _**[*Geographies of
Empty Spaces*](https://cartographicperspectives.org/index.php/journal/article/view/1591/1871)**_.
Through a detailed comparison of various paper and digital maps of
Washington in the United States, Quinn found varying patterns of missing
data, defined as areas where no map features appear (see image below).

In an investigation then, it is important to be aware of the biases of
any particular map and _**[triangulate data](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangulation_(social_science))**_
where possible.



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f16.png)
*Image: Sterling Quinn’s research on “empty spaces” in maps. Row above indicates the digital maps she compared, row below indicates the paper maps she used. Black shaded area represents areas where no map features appear. Source: <https://cartographicperspectives.org/index.php/journal/article/view/1591/1871>*

**If certain communities, activities, and landscapes are hidden from view, how can you tell what is swept under the rug?**

Some starting questions to ask include:

- **Whose maps does the investigation rely on, and what missing data might exist?** What features of a map might a mapping authority deem
unimportant or worth hiding?

- **Are certain parts of the map blurred, pixelated or only available in
low resolutions?** This is a common practice in satellite maps for
particularly strategic locations such as military airbases, refugee
camps, power plants, and important infrastructures. Examining the
selective obscuring of particular features of a map can be a useful
investigative tool - see [Federation of American Scientists](https://fas.org)’ investigation into how blurring of
satellite images can reveal the exact location of secret facilities:
[*Widespread Blurring of Satellite Images Reveals Secret Facilities*](https://fas.org/blogs/security/2018/12/widespread-blurring-of-satellite-images-reveals-secret-facilities/).
Also, see this crowdsourced Wikipedia entry [*List of satellite map images with missing or unclear data*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_satellite_map_images_with_missing_or_unclear_data).”

- **Are the maps intentionally outdated?** Some maps intentionally depict
an older time period or omit data within certain timeframes. For
example, see the [Associate Press’ investigation](https://web.archive.org/web/20210926124230/https://www.jacksonville.com/article/20110822/NEWS/801245757) into post-9/11 obfuscation in US maps (original link: <https://www.jacksonville.com/article/20110822/NEWS/801245757> /
archived with Waybac Machine [here.](https://web.archive.org/web/20210926124230/https://www.jacksonville.com/article/20110822/NEWS/801245757))

- **Might the map have vague or misleading labels or features?** This is a
common tactic to direct unwanted attention away from a certain area.
For instance, military and intelligence assets are often omitted
from UK maps, or labelled as “farms” and ambiguous entities such as
“depot,” “works,” or “disused airfield” (see, as an example the
article of C. Perkins and M. Dodge, _**[*Satellite imagery and the spectacle of secret spaces*](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016718509000517)**_, in *Geoforum*, vol. 40, no. 4, pp.546–560, 2009.)

Sometimes maps omit important data due to technical and design decisions
too. For instance, “cartographic generalization” is a common process in
digital geographic systems such as Geographic Information System (GIS).
Cartographic generalization controls how much detail is represented in a
map where trade-offs are necessary (where this is shaped by human and/or
automated decisions). This can result in problems such as the
[Baltimore phenomenon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartographic_generalization),
the tendency for a city to be omitted from maps due to space constraints
while smaller cities are included on the same map because there is enough space to display them (also see more details in this useful _**[*General
Cartography* syllabus](https://www.eiilmuniversity.co.in/downloads/General_Cartography.pdf)**_ from Eiilm University, page 44 for Baltimore
Phenomenon - syllabus archived with Wayback Machine [here](https://web.archive.org/web/20210926125211/https://www.eiilmuniversity.co.in/downloads/General_Cartography.pdf)).
The city of Baltimore in the United States is often omitted on maps of certain scales due to the presence of larger cities in close proximity of it, despite the fact that smaller cities often appear at these same scales. For further reading on
this topic see: _**[*How to Map Nothing*](https://placesjournal.org/article/how-to-map-nothing/)**_ (Shannon Mattern, March 2021) on Placesjournal.org.

With so many ways to obscure or hide data, it is important not to assume
that any one map is definitive. It might be important to consult a
variety of sources and to not write-off paper or locally created maps.
At the same time, **it is important to note that not everything can be
or should be captured. There are reasons why communities and actors may
wish to remain off the maps and other radars. When investigating it is
important to acknowledge data refusal and incorporate ways to truly gain
consent.** For more about this see research by:

- E. Tuck and K. W. Yang - [*Unbecoming claims: Pedagogies of refusal in qualitative research*](https://www.sjsu.edu/people/marcos.pizarro/courses/240/s0/275TuckYang.pdf), Qualitative Inquiry, vol. 20, no. 6, pp.811–818, 2014.

- A. Simpson - [*On ethnographic refusal: Indigeneity,‘voice’and colonial citizenship*](https://pages.ucsd.edu/~rfrank/class_web/ES-270/SimpsonJunctures9.pdf), Junctures: The Journal for Thematic Dialogue, no. 9, 2007.


```cik-tip
```
> **Tips:**
>
> While filling out missing data is a valuable exercise, it is always important to ask:
>
>- Am I working with a community in a mapping project?
>
>- Does the community I am mapping wish to be counted or exposed in a
> certain way?
>
>- Do they have a say in whether they wish to be involved, the
> questions being asked, and throughout the mapping process?
>
> These questions are essential if the community at hand is marginalized
> or precarious in some way. There are ways to preserve anonymity and
> confidentiality however location data is especially revealing: see
> [controversies from the Muslim Pro App](https://nowthisnews.com/news/people-are-deleting-the-muslim-pro-prayer-app-after-learning-data-was-shared-with-us-military)
> and [phone location data mapping](https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/12/10/business/location-data-privacy-apps.html)
> as some examples.
>


### Mapping communities with careful crowdsourcing


It is important to consider whether you are mapping your own community
or a community you are not a part of. What might you be missing as an
outsider? Always remember to situate yourself in the mapping exercise,
properly contextualize your maps, and carefully consider the localities
you are studying. Ask yourself:

- Whose maps are you relying on?

- Whose knowledge and interpretation are you using?

- Who are you including and excluding?

If you are not a part of the community at hand, consider partnering with
community members in your investigation, including at the research
design stage (for further reading on this topic, see: Annita Lucchesi’s
[work](https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/full/10.3138/cart-2019-0022) on
Indigenous Mapping principles in *Spatial Data and (De)Colonization:
Incorporating Indigenous Data Sovereignty Principles into Cartographic
Research* including [her talk](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GQXc9eGp6So) on this
topic; and ideas on Co-produced Ethnography in the book [*Decolonizing Ethnography: Undocumented Immigrants and New Directions in Social Science*](https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv11smmv5) by Carolina Alonso Bejarano, Lucía López Juárez, Mirian A.
Mijangos García and Daniel M. Goldstein, 2019 Published by: Duke
University Press (reviewed [here.](https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/lsereviewofbooks/2020/04/28/book-review-decolonizing-ethnography-undocumented-immigrants-and-new-directions-in-social-science-by-carolina-alonso-bejarano-lucia-lopez-juarez-mirian-a-mijangos-garcia-and-daniel-m-goldstein/))

_**[Crowdsourcing](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/articles/it-takes-a-crowd)**_
is a popular way of involving a community in the mapmaking process, but
this method does not mean the work is necessarily being co-created, or
that participants have equal footing in the project (see more about
Collaborative Cartography _**[here.](https://gistbok.ucgis.org/bok-topics/collaborative-cartography)**_)

The critical thinking surrounding commercial maps should be extended to
other types of open-source projects too. Some questions to think about
include:

- Who is defining the questions and parameters being investigated?

- On whose terms are the information being collected and analyzed on?
Is there room for substantive feedback and change?

- What input is actually allowed from the participants?

- Who is the arbiter of what gets mapped and what does not?

- Who ultimately owns the data, maps and knowledge produced? Who are
the cited authors and who benefits?

- Is the crowdsourced data from a representative sample of the
community?

- What languages are the maps available in and will this allow for
different members of a community to contribute?

As authors of the book _**[*Indigenous Data Sovereignty*](https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n2140/pdf/book.pdf)**_,
Tahu Kukutai and John Taylor argue, data ownership, including control
over technical adjustments, content, and infrastructure, matters
immensely, particularly when indigenous and minority communities are
involved (see more in T. J. McGurk and S. Caquard, *To what extent can online mapping be decolonial? A journey throughout Indigenous cartography in Canada*, The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien, vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 49–64, 2020, doi: <https://doi.org/10.1111/cag.12602> , full pdf
[here](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339414491_To_what_extent_can_online_mapping_be_decolonial_A_journey_throughout_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada) )

Maps faces, including the thousands of [fake company listings](https://www.newscientist.com/article/2127150-thousands-of-fake-companies-added-to-google-maps-every-month/) present in its services, the map's underlying [commercial orientations](https://www.diggitmagazine.com/articles/google-maps-commercially-oriented-representation-world) and many [biases](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339414491_To_what_extent_can_online_mapping_be_decolonial_A_journey_throughout_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada) of their framework despite attempts at making mapping “open”.


```cik-note
```
>
> **Note:**
>
> While working with open-source and collaborative frameworks is generally great, it is important to remember
> that crowdsourcing data is not inherently good and that there are many elements to pay attention to (also see A. Basiri, M. Haklay, G. Foody,
> and P. Mooney, [*Crowdsourced geospatial data quality: challenges and future directions*](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13658816.2019.1593422), International Journal of Geographical Information Science, vol. 33, no. 8, pp. 1588–1593, Aug. 2019.) Critical reflection and acknowledging your own limitations while assessing when it’s important to think of _**[collaborating](https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/how/collaboration.html)**_ with other experts are crucial processes in investigations.
>


### Mapping infrastructures and authorities

It is vital to carefully think through what mapping infrastructure underpins
investigative projects. While many freely available mapping
infrastructures allow extensive customization, we need to pay attention
to what is not customizable.

Maps are tethered to certain places and jurisdictions. Both paper and digital maps often have layers of
intersecting authority. For instance, Google’s headquarters are in the
US, but it is a global company, subject to local legislation and
pressure from various communities, where maps can look different
depending on where you are accessing them from. One example is Kashmir,
a contested area of land straddling the borders of China, India, and
Pakistan. When viewing Kashmir on Google Maps from Pakistan, the borders
are disjointed and appear disputed. However, when viewing from India, a
single, smooth line carves out Kashmir as a part of India. Mapped
borders and territories are less concrete than any printed black lines
would suggest.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f17.1.png)

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f17.2.png)
*Image: The Kashmir borders on Google Maps which appear disputed when viewing from Pakistan (left). When viewed from India however, the solid,continuous border implies that Kashmir is part of India (right) 2020. Source: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rZpc2_xnSfc>*

Maps are also subjected to certain laws. For instance, many of
the largest platforms providing digital maps are based in the US
including Google Maps, Microsoft Bing Maps, and Apple Maps – and as
such, they are all subject to a law called the Kyl-Bingaman Amendment
(KBA) which was put in force in the 1997. The KBA essentially ensures
that US companies are only allowed to disseminate low resolution
satellite imagery over Israel-occupied territories (with several exceptions).
Here, the importance of who the mapping authorities are is made explicit.

```cik-note
```
>
> **Note:**
>
> It might be helpful to remember that restrictions can also be
> challenged and circumvented depending on the circumstance. See here
> for an example of a team of archaeologist who were successful in
> challenging elements of the [Kyl-Bingaman Amendment (KBA)](https://www.ox.ac.uk/news/arts-blog/oxford-archaeologists-win-access-restricted-satellite-images-israel-and-palestinian) and in reducing its restrictions.
>


For this reason, it is worth comparing various maps. See below for a
table of some popular web-based mapping services and examples of how
they differ.


||Origin|Type|Some notes on maps|
|--- |--- |--- |--- |
|OpenStreetMap (OSM)|UK|Non-Commercial|OSM is an open-source mapping project that has a large community of volunteer contributors and is the basis of many other mapping projects around the world. OSM is a non-profit entity sponsored by various universities and organizations. OSM does not track its users' activity. OSM allows and encourages their users to download its mapping databases, whereas commercial maps tend to limit data sharing through API funnels. OSM was made to be shared and built upon, so the core functionalities are intentionally basic.|
|Apple Maps|US|Commercial|Apple Maps is another popular mapping service that is pre-loaded on Apple devices. Apple Maps in China adheres to the Chinese government's data policy surrounding maps (e.g. using government-sanctioned names and territorial boundaries). Other mapping views include satellite and terrain views, 360 panoramic (Street View), “Flyover Views” and “City Tours” for certain places, among others.|
|Google Maps|US|Commercial|Google Maps is one of the most popular mapping services in the world. It supports over 54 languages and comes pre-loaded on many mobile devices. It tailors searches according to user histories and tracking networks, advertisers, and algorithmic ranking systems that are connected with Alphabet’s (Google’s parent company) larger suite of services. Different “user profiles” may prompt different mapping results. Google Maps is blocked in China, and therefore often lacks community contributions in that locality. Other mapping views include Google Earth (including satellite and terrain views), Rotation View (beta), 360 panoramic (Street View), Google Earth Virtual Reality (VR), and so forth.|
|Baidu Maps|China|Commercial|Due to China’s firewall, citizens have less access to other maps, thus locally made maps are often more detailed and contains more crowdsourced information. Baidu Maps is only available in Chinese and is commonly used in China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. Baidu Maps is blocked in India for “national security concerns”. Other mapping views include satellite views, 360 panoramic (Street View), and an “indoor view”.|
|QQ Tencent Map|China|Commercial|QQ Maps is another popular mapping service in China. The maps are available in Chinese and is particularly used in China, Taiwan and Hong Kong. Other mapping views include satellite imagery, 360 panoramic (Street View), and historical view.|
|Microsoft Bing|US|Commercial|Microsoft Bing is a popular mapping service that is supported in over 117 languages. Bing was previously banned in China, but has since been unblocked. Other mapping views include satellite, 360 panoramic (Street View), and venue maps (inside views of a location).|
|Yandex|Russia|Commercial|Yandex is a mapping service from Russia. It offers particularly detailed maps of Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Turkey, and Kazakhstan. It is available in English, Russian, Ukrainain, Kazakh, Belarusian, Bahasa Indonesia, and Tatar language. Other mapping views include satellite, 360 panoramic (Street View), and rotation view (mobile version).|
|[Native Land Maps](https://native-land.ca/) |Canada|Non-Commercial|Native Land Digital (Canadian nonprofit) provides a map of Indigenous territories, languages, and treaties. Comes with a guide on how to think critically about this particular map and beyond: https://native-land.ca/resources/teachers-guide/|
|Bhuvan|India|Government/Public|Bhuvan is a web-based utility that allows exploration of maps by the Indian Space Research Organisation. It is available in Hindi, English, Tamil, Telugu.|
|Qwant Maps (beta)|France|Commercial|Qwant Maps is launched by Qwant, a French search engine that positions itself as a privacy-respecting service that does not utilize user tracking or personalized search queries. Launched in 2019, Qwant Maps was a relative newcomer, but it builds on OSM databases. Qwant also launched Masq, an open-source technology that allows online services to offer personalized results from data securely stored on the user's device. Because Qwant is based in Europe, it adheres to European privacy laws including the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).|


Only a select few digital maps are included here but this might be a
good starting point to think about the peculiarities of any one map. Of
course, building your own map and using locally created maps are worth
considering where possible.

```cik-tip
```
>
> Through careful examinations of how maps are calibrated and crafted
> (e.g., the vertical & missing data) and who owns and creates maps
> (e.g., communities, commercial entities, or governments/jurisdictions,
> and in which languages) we can glean new insights and envision
> alternative representations of our messy, complex realities, in our
> investigations and beyond.
>


<br/>

## Maps and UnMaps

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/il/critical-maps-01-cik-illustration.png)


Maps and mapmaking can be used in countless ways — to inform, control,
resist or simply to better relate to our surroundings. This last section
is an exploration of some of the ways to use maps in an investigative
project. This list is non-exhaustive and overlapping, but it serves as a
starting point to explore what maps can do:

1. The Patterned Map
2. The Map of Reimagining
3. The Power Map
4. The Storytelling Map
5. The Real-Time Map of Protest


### The Patterned Map

**(Concerned with analysis)**

All maps contain information but some maps places patterns at the
forefront.

Some maps are static images that we use to navigate. Other maps might be
used more as a way of analysis, looking for patterns across space and
time. Maps can be compared, examined over time, and overlaid with data
in order to tease out trends, relationships, and patterns.

One example is Detroit Geographic Expedition’s map called _**[*Where Commuters Run Over Black Children on the Pointes-Downtown Track*](https://detroitography.com/2013/06/12/where-commuters-run-over-black-children-detroit-1968/)**_”
(see image below). This was part of a series of investigative projects
led by Gwendolyn Warren, which used a mixture of qualitative data,
ethnographic interviews, and personal testimonies to document the
disparities between the Black and White neighborhoods in the area. In
this particular map, Warren and a team of researchers set out to fill a
data void surrounding children’s death that were caused by car
accidents. By mapping data that was either nonexistent or not publicly
accessible, they demonstrated that accidents were clustered around
commuter traffic from wealthy White suburbs to Black neighborhoods. This
highlighted that there was a pattern with Black children’s deaths and
that each accident was not an isolated incident, but instead “indicative
that the spatial and racial injustice of the city leads to the bodily
harm of the most vulnerable members of its lower classes” (source: kanarinka, [*The Detroit Geographic Expedition and Institute: A Case Study in Civic Mapping*](https://civic.mit.edu/index.html%3Fp=220.html)” – MIT Center for Civic Media, accessed Dec. 14, 2020.)



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f18.png)
*Image: From Field Notes III: Geography of the Children of Detroit by the Detroit Geographical Expedition and Institute, 1971. Source:
<https://civic.mit.edu/index.html%3Fp=220.html>*

Another example is John Snow and Charles Cheffins’ [mapping of cholera outbreak](https://www.rcseng.ac.uk/library-and-publications/library/blog/mapping-disease-john-snow-and-cholera/)s in 19th century London (see image below). In the 1850s, cholera was
believed to be an airborne disease however John Snow, a physician at the
time, had a hunch it was transmitted through water. To investigate this,
he decided to map the cases of cholera in a particularly bad outbreak in
Soho, London. Using mortality report data from the Registrar General
Office in London and interviews with local residents, John Snow and
collaborators mapped out how deaths were clustered in the neighborhood.
The maps pointed to a link between cholera cases and a contaminated
water pump in which nearby residents were drinking from. These
documentations were eventually convincing enough to persuade the local
council to take action and for the medical profession at large to take
the waterborne theory of cholera seriously (see more in _**[this article](https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/mar/15/john-snow-cholera-map**_) by The Guardian.)



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f19.png)
*Image: Thematic map showing incidence of cholera as black bars (each bar represents a death from cholera), first shown at a meeting of the
London Epidemiological Society in 1854. Source: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1854_Broad_Street_cholera_outbreak>*

```cik-note
```
>
> **Note:**
>
> Remember to pay attention to the nuances of the particular case you
> are investigating when trying to discern patterns over space and time.
> See the ETI Kit on “[Using Maps to See Beyond the Obvious](https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/how/maps.html)” by
> Alison Kiling for examples of thematic mapping as well as datasets and base maps that are available.


### The Map of Reimagining

**(Concerned with mapping alternatives and counter-mapping)**

All maps imagine but some maps are intended to resist the status quo.

Since maps are constructed, they can be deconstructed and reconstructed.
Some maps serve to reimagine borders, territories, and places. Maps can
also rectify what was not mapped in the past, map an alternative future,
or imagine the present along different terms.

For instance, the [*Detroit Geographic Expedition*](https://detroitography.com/tag/detroit-geographic-expedition-institute/)
placed particular emphasis on “oughtness maps”, a map of how things are
and of how things ought to (should) be. In their first publication - [*Field Notes I*](https://antipodeonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/dgei_fieldnotes-i.pdf) - they remind us that “afterall, it is not the function of geographers
to merely map the earth, but to change it” (see more about the [Detroit
Geographic Expedition](https://detroitography.com/tag/detroit-geographic-expedition-institute/)
“Field Notes” [here](https://antipodeonline.org/2017/02/23/dgei-field-notes/).)

Various Indigenous mapping projects in particular have sought to counter
mainstream mapping narratives. This is especially due to how the history
of cartography has contributed to the dispossession of Indigenous
Peoples’ territories and languages. One example is the _**[Native Land Digital project](https://native-land.ca/)**_, which uses community
contributions to map out Indigenous lands, Settler-Indigenous relations, histories, treaties, and more (see image below.)

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f20.png)
*Image: Native Land (Canadian Nonprofit) a living map of Indigenous territories, languages, and treaties. Source: <https://native-land.ca/>*

Similarly, many borders and territories are arbitrarily carved out,
especially during times of colonialisation. The [*Secret Countries*](https://chimurengachronic.co.za/secret-countries/)” section
of the cartographic issue of the _**[Chimurenga Chronical](https://chimurengachronic.co.za/)**_ envisions an alternative mapping of the continent of Africa. Inspired by Archille Mbembe’s [*At the Edge of World: Boundaries, Territoriality, and Sovereignty in Africa*](https://muse.jhu.edu/article/26186), it moves beyond nation state representations of Africa, and instead offers other arrangements and depictions of Africa where territories are tied together through shared history, trade, and other flows.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f21.png)
*Image source: <https://chimurengachronic.co.za/secret-countries/>*


### The Power Map

**(Concerned with mapping relationships)**

All maps are relational but some maps places networks at the center.

Power mapping or relational mapping is also a way of analysis, but it is
more specific and often used by organizers, activists, and investigators
to identify who has what type of power in a community. These maps help
locate relevant parties, including allies and decision-makers. Power
maps can look different according to their purpose.

For example, the _**[Anti-Eviction Mapping Project](https://antievictionmap.com/)**_ produced a community power map of
Oakland in the United States, “a city that has historically faced disinvestment”. It presents a map of who and what the community values,
as well as what threatens their place during this time of city development.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f22.jpg)
*Source: Anti-Eviction project: <https://antievictionmap.com/>*

```cik-tip
```
>
> Read more about this topic in:
>
> - [Power Mapping and Analysis](https://commonslibrary.org/guide-power-mapping-and-analysis/) -
> The Commons (commonslibrary.org)
>
> - [Power mapping](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_mapping), (Wikipedia)



### The Storytelling Map

**(Concerned with communicating)**

All maps have stories, but some maps have storytelling as its main
focus.

Various strands of investigative projects have emphasized the need to
humanize data, especially in our data-saturated world (read more about
data saturation in Danah Boyd and K. Crawford, _**[*Critical Questions for Big Data*](https://people.cs.kuleuven.be/~bettina.berendt/teaching/ViennaDH15/boyd_crawford_2012.pdf)**_, Information, Communication & Society, pp. 662–679, May 2012 - full
article [here](https://people.cs.kuleuven.be/~bettina.berendt/teaching/ViennaDH15/boyd_crawford_2012.pdf).)
This extends to cartographic data. Storytelling through maps can help
embed the realities of data, communicate difficult to understand
concepts, and assist in conveying the scale or severity of an issue.

For instance, _**[*Views from the North Atlas*](http://viewsfromthenorth.ca/index.html)**_ a joint project by the
Inuit training program _**[Nunavut Sivuniksavut](https://www.nunavutsivuniksavut.ca/about-us)**_ and [Carleton University](https://carleton.ca/) in Ottawa, presents an exploration of Inuit histories in Canada (see image below). Here, interviews between
Nunavut Sivuniksavut students and elders from their home communities are
situated alongside photographs, archival materials, and cartographic
features in order to foster a living map of Inuit culture.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f23.png)
*Image source: <http://viewsfromthenorth.ca/>*

In *Narratives of Displacement and Resistance* the [Anti-Eviction
Mapping Project](http://www.antievictionmappingproject.net/narratives.html)
presents incidents of eviction along with oral histories in several US
cities (see image below.) Each red dot represents a case of eviction that
occurred, and each turquoise dot has an interview accompaniment.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f24.png)
*Image “Narratives of Displacement and Resistance” by the Anti-Eviction Mapping Project. Source:
<http://www.antievictionmappingproject.net/narratives.html>*

Likewise, geographer and artist Levi Westerveld’s _**[*Those Who Did Not Cross*](https://visionscarto.net/those-who-did-not-cross)**_ maps those who
lost their lives at sea while trying to reach European shores from
2005 to 2015 (see image below). Here, the destination countries are flattened
into a black coastline or into what one might see looking onto the
horizon. Lines of text attempt to contextualize the tragedies that
occurred.


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f25.jpg)
*Image: Levi Westerveld’s map of Those Who Did Not Cross (2005–15). Source: <https://visionscarto.net/those-who-did-not-cross>*

And, Visualizing Palestine's infographic of the Israel government’s ID system, informed by Helga
Tawil-Souri’s work, disentangles one aspect of how this larger system
controls, stratifies and controls various Palestinian communities (see
image below and Helga Tawil-Souri’s article [*Uneven Borders, Coloured (Im)mobilities: ID Cards in Palestine/Israel*](https://doi.org/10.1215/01642472-1259488), Social Text (2011) 29 (2(107)): 67–97.)


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f26.png)
*Image: Infograph by VisualizingPalestine.org: visualisation of the Complex ID Matrix informed by Helga Tawil-Souri. Source <https://visualizingpalestine.org/visual/identity-crisis-the-israeli-id-system/>.*


### The Real-Time Map of Protest

**(Concerned with mapping the now)**

All maps are entangled in a certain time period but some maps are meant
to be ephemeral.

Resistance is threaded through all of the above – including resisting
information voids, resisting through narratives, and resisting borders.
The above maps are also acts of resistance in themselves with how they
reveal the multitude of injustices that may not be visible in our daily
lives. Another type of map that takes resistance at center stage is the
real-time maps of protests.

Protest maps are maps that accompany protests and conflicts in real-time
where it is important to share information, document what is happening,
and organize logistics of a movement as it unfolds. Some examples
include the _**[Hong Kong Live Map](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HKmap.live)**_ platform that accompanied
the waves of protests in Hong Kong during 2019-2020 (see image below).
Here, clashes between protestors and police were documented through
crowdsourced data and faded away as soon as the incident ended.


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f27.jpg)
*Image: Hong Kong Live Map that mapped in real time the 2019-2020 city-wide protests in Hong Kong. Source:
<https://twitter.com/hkmaplive/status/1265414473181003776/photo/1>*


```cik-example
```
>
> See also the _**[ETI Kit’s OSINT piece about ScanMap](https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/what/osint-ocean.html)**_,
> a real-time map that emerged during the Black Lives Matter protests in
> the summer of 2020 (see image below). Built by activist group [Radio12](https://radio12.org/) with
> Open Source Intelligence (OSINT) techniques, [ScanMap](https://scanmap.mobi/) is a
> free and accessible tool that maps hotspots of protest, police
> location and key points of blockades in various cities.
>
>![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f28.png)
> *Screenshot from: <https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/what/osint-ocean.html>*
>


These maps were made to be used at a specific time and meant to be
fleeting. As such, maps do not have to be permanent, and these serve as
a reminder about how map design can be more intentional.

For instance, digital maps often extract data from users and having a
centralized storage of personal data might pose a risk in terms of data
leaks or in terms of government requests where law enforcement may gain
access to data that is collected. If you are designing your own maps, be
considerate of what data (or partial data) you store and whether you are
putting anyone (including yourself) in danger.

<br/>

## Stay critical

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/il/critical-maps-02-cik-illustration.png)


> “We use maps to find our way in the world, to locate ourselves in relation to others, to measure distance and record change. Maps are inherently contextual, which can make them seem old-fashioned in a culture that values immediacy, one that operates through image and spectacle. The image is a mask, a face, a front, an arrow. The map is its opposite, not an index of the world but a way of relating to it.” (Taiyon J. Coleman, 2017, [*Poems as Maps: An Introduction*](https://placesjournal.org/series/poems-as-maps/), in <https://placesjournal.org/>).

Maps can reveal and hide. They can reinforce but also reimagine. As we
incorporate, build and consult maps in our research and investigations, we need to remember to
keep a careful, critical eye on how these maps are summarizing space and time.

What visions of the world will your maps hold?

<br/>

<hr class="thick">

_Published October 2021_

<br/>


## Resources

#### Articles and Studies


- _[Cartographic Abstraction in Contemporary Art: Seeing with Maps](https://www.clairereddleman.com/chapters-of-cartographic-abstraction-in-contemporary-art-seeing-with-maps)_, book by Claire Reddleman, 2017 Routledge.

- _[CORE](https://core.ac.uk/)_ - a large collection of open access research papers.

- _[Critical Questions for Big Data](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1369118X.2012.678878)_, by Danah Boyd and K. Crawford in 'Information, Communication & Society', pp. 662–679, May 2012.

- _[Crowdsourced geospatial data quality: challenges and future directions](https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10074777/1/IJGIS%20Editorial%2004032019ABMH.pdf)_ by A. Basiri, M. Haklay, G. Foody, and P. Mooney, International Journal
of Geographical Information Science, vol. 33, no. 8, pp. 1588–1593, Aug. 2019, doi: 10.1080/13658816.2019.1593422.

- _[Decolonizing the Map: Recentering Indigenous Mappings](https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/full/10.3138/cart.53.3.intro)_, by R. Rose-Redwood, N. Blu Barnd, A. H. Lucchesi, S. Dias, and W. Patrick, in Cartographica vol. 55, no. 3, pp. 151–162, Sep. 2020, doi: 10.3138/cart.53.3.intro.

- _[Delivery Platform Algorithms Don’t Work Without Drivers’ Deep Local Knowledge](https://slate.com/technology/2020/12/gojek-grab-indonesia-delivery-platforms-algorithms.html)_, by R. Qadri, Slate Magazine, Dec. 28, 2020 (accessed Jan. 13, 2021.)

- _[Digital occupation: Gaza's high-tech enclosure](https://web.archive.org/web/20210726200358/https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/journals/jps/v41i2/f_0025106_20500.pdf)_, by Tawil-Souri, H. in Journal of Palestine Studies, 41(2), 27-43, 2012.

- _[Favelas and the divided city: mapping silences and calculations in Rio de Janeiro’s journalistic cartography](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263556301_Favelas_and_the_divided_city_Mapping_silences_and_calculations_in_Rio_de_Janeiro%27s_journalistic_cartography)_, by A. R. Novaes, Social & Cultural Geography, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 201–225, 2014.

- _['From My Point of View': documentary](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/films/from-my-point-of-view-film)_, including [these interviews](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/interviews/hagit-diy-mapping-and-reclaiming) about aerial mapping.

- _[General Cartography syllabus](https://www.eiilmuniversity.co.in/downloads/General_Cartography.pdf)_, from Eiilm University (archived with Wayback Machine [here](https://web.archive.org/web/20210926125211/https://www.eiilmuniversity.co.in/downloads/General_Cartography.pdf).)

- _[Here Be Dragons](https://www.vqronline.org/essays-articles/2017/01/here-be-dragons)_, VQR Online, accessed Jan. 14, 2021.

- _[How to Map Nothing](https://placesjournal.org/article/how-to-map-nothing/)_, by Shannon Mattern, March 202, on
placesjournal.org.

- _[Indigenous  data sovereignty: Toward an agenda](https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n2140/pdf/book.pdf)_, by T. Kukutai and J. Taylor, Anu Press, 2016. (archived on Wayback Machine [here.](https://web.archive.org/web/20211026175552/https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n2140/pdf/book.pdf))

- _[Indians Don't Make Maps’: Indigenous Cartographic Traditions and Innovations](https://www.academia.edu/43560408/_Indians_Dont_Make_Maps_Indigenous_Cartographic_Traditions_and_Innovations)_ by A. Lucchesi, American Indian Culture and Research
Journal, vol. 42, no. 3, pp. 11–26.

- _[Maps show – and hide – key information about Ukraine war](https://theconversation.com/maps-show-and-hide-key-information-about-ukraine-war-179069)_ by Timothy Barney, The Conversation, 21 March 2022. (Archived with Wayback Machine [here](https://web.archive.org/web/20220322161249/https://theconversation.com/maps-show-and-hide-key-information-about-ukraine-war-179069))

- _[Mikel Maron: Crowdsourcing satellite imagery to document deforestation](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/articles/logging-roads-mikel-maron/)_, in Exposing the Invisible, Tactical Tech.

- _[Missing Datasets](https://mimionuoha.com/the-library-of-missing-datasets)_, by Mimi Onuoha. 2020.

- _[On ethnographic refusal: Indigeneity, ‘voice’ and colonial citizenship](https://pages.ucsd.edu/~rfrank/class_web/ES-270/SimpsonJunctures9.pdf)_, by A. Simpson in 'Junctures: The Journal for Thematic Dialogue', no. 9, 2007 (archived with Wayback Machine [here.](https://web.archive.org/web/20211031102633/https://pages.ucsd.edu/~rfrank/class_web/ES-270/SimpsonJunctures9.pdf))

- _[The Detroit Geographic Expedition and Institute: A Case Study in Civic Mapping](https://civic.mit.edu/index.html%3Fp=220.html)_, by Catherine D’Ignazio (Kanarinka.com).

- _[Secure the volume: Vertical geopolitics and the depth of power](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271581542_Secure_the_volume_Vertical_geopolitics_and_the_depth_of_power)_, by S. Elden in Political Geography, vol. 34, pp. 35–51, 2013.

- _[Silences and secrecy: the hidden agenda of cartography in early modern Europe](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03085698808592639)_, by J. B. Harley, Imago mundi, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 57–76, 1988.

- _[Starting Satellite Investigations](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/guides/starting-satellite-investigations/)_, in Exposing the Invisible, Tactical Tech.

- _[Super-tall, super-skinny, super-expensive: the ‘pencil towers’ of New York’s super-rich](https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2019/feb/05/super-tall-super-skinny-super-expensive-the-pencil-towers-of-new-yorks-super-rich)_, by O. Wainwright, in The Guardian, Feb. 05, 2019.

- _[The Highs and Lows of Asserting Tribal Airspace Sovereignty](https://web.archive.org/web/20210726202040/https://repository.asu.edu/attachments/216876/content/Knight_asu_0010N_18894.pdf)_, by Shelly Lynn Knight, 2019.

- _[The politics of verticality. Introduction to The Politics of Verticality](https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/article_801jsp/)_, by E.
Weizman in OpenDemocracy.net, April 2002.

- _[To what extent can online mapping be decolonial? A journey throughout Indigenous cartography in Canada](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339414491_To_what_extent_can_online_mapping_be_decolonial_A_journey_throughout_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada)_ by T. J. McGurk and S. Caquard in 'The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien', vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 49–64, 2020, doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/cag.12602.




## Glossary

### term-3dmodelling

**3D modelling** - the process of developing a 3D representation of an
object or place using specialized software.

### term-ar

**Augmented reality (AR)** - a way of enhancing an environment by
superimposing computer-generated information on top of the real world.

### term-critical-cartography

**Critical Cartography** and **Critical Geography** - more generally is
a wide field of practices grounded in critical theory and the starting
point that maps are not objective and instead, reflects and perpetuate
relations of power. See: [Antipode Online](https://antipodeonline.org/) and [The Occupied Times – Critical
Cartography](https://theoccupiedtimes.org/?p=13771).

### term-decolonial-mapping

**Decolonial and Postcolonial mapping** - seeks to resist maps and
map-making legacies that stem from settler colonialism and imperial
projects. **Indigenous mapping** in particular seeks to recenter
Indigenous mappings and cartographies as spatial practices of
world-making; a practice that has a long history. See: [Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization: Vol 55, No 3 (utpjournals.press)](https://www.utpjournals.press/toc/cart/55/3) and [The Decolonial Atlas (wordpress.com)](https://decolonialatlas.wordpress.com/).

### term-lidar

**Lidar** - a method for calculating ranges by targeting an object with
a laser and measuring the time for the reflected light to return to the
receiver.

### term-oughtness-maps

**Oughtness Maps** - a term that emerged from the Detroit Geographic
Expedition which refers to maps that present “how things ought to be.”

### term-photogrammetry

**Photogrammetry** - the process of extracting 3D information from photographs.

### term-radical-cartography

**Radical cartography** - the practice of mapmaking that aims to subvert
the status quo and promote social change. Radical referring to grasping
at the root of the problem. See: [View of The Search for a Radical Cartography / Cartographic Perspectives](https://cartographicperspectives.org/index.php/journal/article/view/6/14#:~:text=The%20editors%2C%20however%2C%20go%20on,to%20actively%20promote%20social%20change.&text=Some%20of%20the%20maps%20are,variety%20of%20approaches%20to%20mapmaking.) and [An Atlas of Radical Cartography](http://www.an-atlas.com/)

### term-remote-sensing

**Remote sensing** - the process of gathering information about an object of phenomenon is done without physical contact with the object.

### term-vertical

**Vertical** - refers to the right angles to a horizontal plane; the direction or alignment of being upwards and downwards.

### term-volumetric

**Volumetric** - refers to thinking in terms of measures of volume of a
city (rather than of area), for instance the density or compactness of
activities in a given urban space. Read more: [Volumetric Sovereignty (societyandspace.org).](https://www.societyandspace.org/forums/volumetric-sovereignty)

### term-vr

**Virtual Reality (VR)** - the creation of a simulated environment.
yesterday
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Resource updated

  1. The Kit
  2. kit-json
  3. English
The “source/en/the-kit-en.json” file was changed. yesterday
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String updated in the repository

  1. The Kit
  2. kit-json
  3. English
Navigating Sensitive Stories: A Guide to Ethical Engagement with Vulnerable Sources
===============================

By Stavros Malichudis

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/il/illustration-vulnerable-sources-main.png)


```cik-in-short
```
**In short:** Drawing on over a decade of investigative reporting experience, this practical guide by Stavros Malichudis in collaboration with Tactical Tech offers concrete steps in working with vulnerable sources.

---

## Introduction

How should journalists and researchers approach sources who have experienced trauma? How can they do so in a way that avoids unintentionally re-traumatising them? And how can we build trust, and make sure that individuals willing to share important information with us will not be targeted or face other negative consequences?

As an investigative reporter and editor for over a decade, I have worked closely with vulnerable sources in the field. I have spoken to [shipwreck survivors](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/films/pylos-shipwreck/); victims of violent state collective expulsions known as ‘pushbacks’; exploited [land workers](https://wearesolomon.com/mag/focus-area/migration/greek-strawberries-made-in-bangladesh/) and [call center agents](https://insidestory.gr/article/teleperformance-part2); unaccompanied minors who lived on the street or had been detained for up to 48 hours in secret ‘prisons,’ which were passenger ferries running between Italy and Greece; residents who lost their neighbors and their houses in a massive fire outside of Athens in the summer of 2018; locals whose loved ones were among [the 64 people who died in 2020 in a care home in Crete, Greece](https://www.investigate-europe.eu/en/posts/death-in-paradise-how-64-care-home-residents-died-in-crete); mothers in Greece and Germany whose sons [were killed by neo-Nazis](https://wearesolomon.com/mag/format/interview/their-sons-were-murdered-by-neo-nazis-now-they-vow-to-keep-their-memory-alive/); and administration and industry insiders who became whistleblowers.

This guide draws on these experiences to address ethical concerns that span the entire investigative project lifestyle, from initial design, to implementation, and finally to engaging audiences in the post-publication phase.


## Pre-reporting phase

### 1. Understand which sources are vulnerable

First, we need to have a clear understanding of the many diverse roles and identities that a ‘vulnerable source’ can belong to. A ‘vulnerable source’ could be, but is not limited to:

* An undocumented worker or a person on the move (migrant);
* A person who lost a loved one in an accident;
* A person who lost their property in a natural disaster; and
* A whistleblower on the brink of exposing misconduct or mistreatment within a company, a state agency, or an international organisation

Focusing on vulnerable voices should be the standard practice for *any* story striving to illuminate underreported issues and hold power accountable. Vulnerable sources can enlighten perspectives, for both the researcher and the reader, by offering the opportunity to perceive a situation as thoroughly and holistically as possible.

Including vulnerable sources in your research isn't just about doing the right thing; it's also about better research. While many stories highlight the usual prominent voices, tapping into those often overlooked can uncover fresh, underexplored perspectives. It's a powerful way to make your work more inclusive and insightful.

But for these individuals, speaking to a researcher carries significant risk. Depending on their status, they could face job loss, retaliation or community rejection, risk of arrest, and more.

Given the stakes, researchers serving the public interest with their investigations have an ethical duty to protect the sources of their work. The rest of this guide presents a curated list of best practices to help researchers incorporate the voices of vulnerable sources while minimising potential harm.

### 2. Do your research before approaching vulnerable sources

Before establishing contact with an individual or a community, it’s vital that some time is dedicated to pre-reporting. Ask yourself: What do you know about the person you are willing to approach or the community they are part of? Do you have a basic understanding of the community’s manners or customs? A basic overview of the individual’s story?

Dedicate some time to answer these questions and gather some basic, initial information. This can be done through searching online, making phone calls to experts, and asking colleagues.

A good first impression can save both parties from awkward situations. It can also help create a first layer of trust; people appreciate it when others have made the effort to learn things about them.

#### For communities:

Research the communities you are approaching, and treat them with respect by adhering to their customs. Demonstrate that you have done your due diligence and establish that this is a source-researcher relationship you are interested in building.

For instance, in some cultures men do not greet women with a handshake. In other cultures, for example, refusing to accept a drink that someone offers can be seen as lack of respect. These cultural circumstances can be difficult to navigate at times, as you balance your specific risk assessment and safety concerns with cultural practices in certain contexts (such as the fear of being poisoned by a potential adversary). Above all, try not to take cultural differences for granted — it’s vital to adapt to and enter each context with as much care and awareness as possible.

#### For individuals:

Again, research as much as possible beforehand. Demonstrate that you took the time to learn about whoever you are approaching. If that person carries with them a traumatic experience, thorough research before meeting them can help avoid re-traumatisation. A journalist's due diligence involves gathering as much context as possible to understand what is at stake for the source.

When I first worked on the [story of the care home](https://www.investigate-europe.eu/en/posts/death-in-paradise-how-64-care-home-residents-died-in-crete) in Crete, Greece, where 64 people died in a single year, some of the relatives who lost loved ones had already talked to the media. Having read their interviews, when I met with them I was able to ask more targeted questions to get the most insightful information. Having an idea of the chain of events, I also had the opportunity to treat traumatic memories with more care.

Doing as much research as possible can help you show sources that you took the time to learn them, stick to the facts when it comes to traumatic experiences, and respectfully acknowledge the pain people share. While a long-standing saying in journalism says that there are no stupid questions, perhaps the only stupid question that could be posed to a vulnerable source is one that will unnecessarily make them re-experience their trauma.

 

### 3. Plan your initial approach

Often, the best way to approach sources who might be hesitant to talk to you is through people who can vouch for your integrity, your credibility, and your ethical standards.

These could be mutual acquaintances, like an NGO that you have worked with before. Or, perhaps you know members of the same community who can introduce you to your potential source.

If the individual has a public social media profile, you can search for possible common connections. This allows for a smoother approach, as well as a better informed pre-reporting phase.


### 4. Recognise the power balance between you and your sources

Researchers should clearly understand the power dynamics at play when working with vulnerable sources. A vulnerable source inherently holds less power than a reporter. This imbalance can stem from a source's level of wealth or income, legal status, social standing, age, race, ethnicity, nationality, religion, or other factors.

Researchers need to take power imbalances in mind when designing an investigation. They must have in mind the insecure position of their source, their ethical duty to protect them and treat them with care, and the possible challenges that may arise during the research phase, and beyond.



## Research phase

### 1. Explain yourself

The success of a research project involving vulnerable sources often comes down to how you explain yourself, the process you follow, the outcomes of the research project, and any possible implications such as short or long-term risks posed to your sources in this case.

Vulnerable sources are entitled to clear explanations of the above, as early on as possible in the process.

Researchers should keep in mind that their sources may not be familiar with their research or its possible implications. Researchers need to provide this context themselves and explain each aspect of a research project as needed.

As early as possible in the process, researchers must seek agreement with sources on these major aspects:

#### The nature and level of involvement:

What is it exactly that you want to gain from your sources? Will this require a single interview or a series of meetings? Should they also expect phone calls from you? Do you expect them to be available for a set period of time, e.g., for the duration of a trial? Is your editor, a photographer, or a fact-checker going to call them later on?

#### The duration and timing of the engagement:

Very often, vulnerable sources contribute to time-sensitive research projects. For instance, when investigating how governments and organisations used funds provided by the EU for the accommodation of asylum seekers, I met a family who stayed in one of these housing units in Athens. The NGO responsible for them was receiving millions of euros from the EU, but photos the family captured showed that conditions inside their apartment were horrific. They wanted to expose the conditions, but it was best for them to do so after they had left the apartment, due to a fear of being identified.

Similar conditions may occur when a company whistleblower wishes to denounce internal processes. It may be better to publish any material only *after vulnerable sources* have left these environments. Time of publication should be agreed upon early on to avoid frustration on both sides. No surprises!

#### The format:

When you interview a vulnerable source, will you quote them in full, or will you rephrase or paraphrase their words? Before recording a source’s voice or likeness through photos or videos, always obtain informed consent, taking care to explain how this material will be used. When recording their voice, for example, state from the outset whether it is strictly for your own note-taking or for inclusion in the publication of the story.

#### Publication details:

Where will the story be published, and in what context? In what languages and formats will the outcome be available?

#### Fact-checking:

Information provided by vulnerable sources, in fact by *any* sources, must be corroborated independently. This can be tiring or disappointing for people who share their trauma with you. Consider the [Pylos shipwreck](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/films/pylos-shipwreck/), the largest in the Mediterranean in recent years, which claimed the lives of over 600 men, women, and children. Some survivors said they had stayed in the water for an hour before a Greek Coast Guard vessel came to their rescue. Others said it was closer to half an hour. While probing such details can feel insensitive given the immense suffering, these discrepancies still require meticulous fact-checking.

For sources unfamiliar with journalistic processes, it's crucial to explain that independent verification is paramount to upholding the integrity and validity of any investigation. This transparent communication also means being clear that some information, no matter how personally significant, may not be included in the final report if it cannot be independently verified.

Clarifying these aspects in advance can help you manage expectations, maintain trust, and mitigate frustrations.

 

### 2. Let sources know they are also in control

All human relations come with power dynamics. Usually, journalists have power over sources, as they ultimately decide what to include in a piece or not. But with sources, especially vulnerable sources, it’s important to know that they are also in control of their own story.

One of the first steps I follow when working with vulnerable sources is to make clear to them that they have the option to decide if specific information shared with me is on the record, off the record, or on background. In other words, if they don’t want to answer a specific question, they don’t have to.

They should also have the opportunity to pause an interview, if at any time they feel the need to do so. As researchers, we should show patience. Give them the time and space they need, and don’t pressure them. Resist the urge to fill pauses, or periods of silence.

If a discussion touches on tragic events, don’t just keep pushing for answers. Take a break when the person seems distressed or simply wants to stop.


```cik-note
```
>**Some terms to explain to your sources:**
>
>* **On the record:** Unless explicitly agreed otherwise, any conversation with a journalist is considered ‘on the record’. This means everything a source says can be quoted directly, attributed by name, and published. It's the highest level of transparency and accountability, allowing readers to see precisely who said what.
>
>* **Off the record:** When something is ‘off the record,’ the journalist agrees that the information provided cannot be published or attributed to the source. Journalists and sources must mutually agree that a conversation is ‘off the record’ before any information is shared.
>
>* **On background:** When a conversation is ‘on background,’ journalists can publish and quote the information provided by a source, but cannot identify the source by name or otherwise attribute that information to the source using other identifiable information. Researchers can describe the source as accurately as possible, for example as ‘a source familiar with the incident’ or ‘an employee on the field’, without revealing the source’s identity.
>


### 3. Give it time

In 2019, during a months-long investigative project, I was tracking unaccompanied migrant children in Greece. These kids faced unimaginable challenges; some had experienced homelessness, others had been detained in police stations for months.

As I worked to build trust and gather information, my editor offered a brilliant piece of advice: “just hang out with them.” No recording, no note-taking, just hanging out. Do what they do. Spend an afternoon with them, then another, without the pressure of collecting material for the written piece I had in mind.

This approach was illuminating. It allowed me to visualise and truly understand the humanity of my potential sources first. It fostered a more natural, less rushed relationship, letting things unfold organically. Investigations, especially with vulnerable sources, demand time.

That fellowship taught me a crucial lesson about building trust. When sources sense genuine care for their story, they often become your strongest advocates, introducing you to others and vouching for your credibility. It's a powerful ripple effect that extends far beyond any single interview.

### 4. Explain the possible implications

Letting vulnerable sources know they’re also in control is related to your responsibility to inform them about the possible implications that may arise for them by speaking to you.

For instance, a few years back I worked on an investigation exposing labor exploitation and racism in a call-center giant in Greece. One of the main sources, an ex-employee of the company, insisted on speaking on the record. Although it’s always better for the validity of an investigation that sources speak on the record, it was my duty back then to inform the person that, given the practices in that specific sector, speaking publicly against the industry’s major company could mean that employers in his sector would no longer want him at their company.

The source took a few days to think on this. He decided to still do it, as he saw his professional future in an entirely unrelated field. It was his choice in the end, but it was my responsibility to provide context that he wasn’t necessarily aware of.

In other cases, when a source shares potentially identifying or incriminating information, it is imperative that a researcher might ask: “Are you sure you want to share this?” - This reminds the source of the risks and empowers them to decide what to share and withhold.


### 5. Don’t create expectations

“Why should I speak to you?” - This is a question I often get from residents of refugee camps across Greece. - “You do your story, what will I get?”

Vulnerable sources might be in dire need of financial aid or of state documents that could make their life move forward, to name just two examples. You might be asking them to talk to you at a time when they feel their life is falling apart.

Researchers should make sure not to exploit the hopes of vulnerable sources. Simply put, don’t offer things in return for information, and don’t promise what you cannot deliver.

It is imperative to explain that the actual impact of your story, especially for the individual’s own story, might be limited. But you should also explain that your research will contribute to holding power to account, and may contribute to a wider impact beyond this one story.

While you may not be in a position to help them get certain documents, you can help them in other ways, like to let them know which NGOs offer legal support or to tell them what you know about labor inspections.


### 6. Ensure physical safety when meeting in person

Are sources talking to you at risk if someone sees them with a reporter or a researcher? Would source protection be compromised?

Physical safety during meetings demands careful planning. Be sure to consider:

* **Awareness of Surroundings:** Ensure you are not being followed. Have a good understanding of the area you are in.

* **Discreet Meeting Locations:** Avoid places where you could be easily seen. If meeting at a café, choose a seat with a direct view of the entrance. Avoid outdoor seating where you might be visible to individuals you cannot see.

* **Location Privacy:** If using taxis or ride-sharing apps to meet a vulnerable source, avoid mentioning or inputting the exact meeting address directly into the app. You can ride to a walking distance address, and get on foot from there.

* **Mobile Device Protocols:** When meeting sensitive sources, consider not carrying your mobile phone or disabling GPS to protect their safety, even if you perceive no personal risk.

* **Inform your source:** Share with your source the different steps you take to ensure their protection. This can help build trust among the two parties, but it can also lead to valuable feedback on the specifics.

 

### 7. Ensure digital safety

In-person meetings are not the only form of communication in need of security. Securing digital communication is also paramount. This includes:

* **Password Protection:** Keep your phone password-protected.

* **Auto-Delete Messages:** Utilise features that automatically delete messages. Most applications (like Signal, WhatsApp) have this feature.

* **Encrypted Communication:** Avoid standard phone lines and SMS. Prioritise encrypted messaging apps like Signal, which is favored by researchers and academics due to its strong security.

* **End-to-End Encryption:** Opt for services designed with privacy, where end-to-end encryption is standard, ensuring only you and your source can read messages.


```cik-note
```
>**Digital Security Resources**
>
>For fundamentals on digital security, physical security and wellbeing as well as risk assessment, you can start with articles and guides such as:
>
>* Security in a Box guides and tutorials: [https://securityinabox.org/](https://securityinabox.org/) 
>* Safety First guide: [https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/safety.html](https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/safety.html) 
>* Risk Assessment guide: [https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/articles/risk-assessment-mindset](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/articles/risk-assessment-mindset) 
>* Holistic Security manual: [https://holistic-security.tacticaltech.org/](https://holistic-security.tacticaltech.org/) 
>

### 8. Handle documents securely

For sensitive investigations, physical transfer of documents can sometimes be the safest method, such as through mail or direct delivery. Physical transfer doesn’t leave metadata. Edits can’t be tracked. This was reportedly how Edward Snowden provided documents to reporters, according to ["Snowden's Box: Trust in the Age of Surveillance"](https://www.versobooks.com/products/852-snowden-s-box?srsltid=AfmBOop4rkUd1yEAj2yNWs2yL5PTqlrs3MMKtHk7bmUuARbO0H0-Ckhi) by Jessica Bruder and Dale Maharidge, two experienced journalists who worked behind the scenes of the Snowden story. As the summary of the book notes, "The biggest national security leak of the digital era was launched via a remarkably analog network, the US Postal Service."

If a source provides you with a document, you have to make sure that you properly anonymise it in case you wish to publish it together with your investigation or share it with others outside your fully trusted team. Make sure you really anonymise it. Don’t just cover content with blacked out text boxes that can be removed from the file! Image edits with specific tools can be tracked, as can metadata of the files, so one needs to very carefully work on this to ensure full source protection.

 

```cik-note
```
>**Metadata** refers to information that describes the properties of a file, be it an image, a document, a sound recording, a map, etc. For example the contents of an image are the visible elements in it, while the date when the image was taken, the location and device information constitute its metadata. In communications – when sending a message or a file - metadata includes details about who sent it, when, where from, and to whom, among others. See more here: [https://ssd.eff.org/module/why-metadata-matters](https://ssd.eff.org/module/why-metadata-matters "https\://ssd.eff.org/module/why-metadata-matters").
>

Of course, file and data anonymisation has its drawbacks. Often it means altering evidence, so you will need to make sure you safely preserve original, unaltered versions of files for any possible situations that might arise, including, for example, court procedures.    

In 2022, after months of investigation, Greece's National Transparency Authority (NTA) released a redacted report addressing allegations of illegal pushbacks of asylum seekers. The report's conclusion: no such pushbacks had occurred. However, researchers quickly discovered a critical flaw: basic digital design tools were all that was needed to remove the blacked-out sections intended to protect the anonymity of the report's sources, thereby compromising the identities of the individuals who had informed the research.


```cik-tip
```
> See more tips and examples about data anonymisation in these articles:
>
>* “How Data Journalists Can Use Anonymization to Protect Privacy”, GIJN: [https://gijn.org/stories/how-data-journalists-can-use-anonymization-to-protect-privacy/](https://gijn.org/stories/how-data-journalists-can-use-anonymization-to-protect-privacy/)
>
>* “Privacy and data leaks: How to decide what to report”: [https://datajournalism.com/read/longreads/privacy-and-data-leaks](https://datajournalism.com/read/longreads/privacy-and-data-leaks)
>
>* “Why does The New York Times use anonymous sources?”, The New York Times, [https://www.nytimes.com/article/why-new-york-times-anonymous-sources.html](https://www.nytimes.com/article/why-new-york-times-anonymous-sources.html)
>
>* “Here are 12 principles journalists should follow to make sure they’re protecting their sources”, NiemanLab: [https://www.niemanlab.org/2019/01/here-are-12-principles-journalists-should-follow-to-make-sure-theyre-protecting-their-sources/](https://www.niemanlab.org/2019/01/here-are-12-principles-journalists-should-follow-to-make-sure-theyre-protecting-their-sources/)
>
>* “Investigative Journalism: How to Develop and Manage your Sources”, Al Jazeera Journalism Review: [https://institute.aljazeera.net/en/ajr/article/investigative-journalism-how-develop-and-manage-your-sources](https://institute.aljazeera.net/en/ajr/article/investigative-journalism-how-develop-and-manage-your-sources)
>
>* “Media Defense Guide for Investigative Journalists”, Media Defence: [https://gijn.org/stories/legal-help-for-journalists/](https://gijn.org/stories/legal-help-for-journalists/) (see more resources from Media Defense here: [https://www.mediadefence.org/resource-hub/](https://www.mediadefence.org/resource-hub/)
>
>* “The Perugia Principles for Journalists Working with Whistleblowers in the Digital Age”: [https://whistleblowingnetwork.org/WIN/media/pdfs/Journalism-Sources-INT-Blueprint-2018-Perugia-Principles-for-Journalists.pdf](https://whistleblowingnetwork.org/WIN/media/pdfs/Journalism-Sources-INT-Blueprint-2018-Perugia-Principles-for-Journalists.pdf) 
>


### 9. Show empathy in interviews

When interviewing vulnerable sources, traditional journalistic approaches — like quickly shifting between topics — can inadvertently inflict further harm. Instead, a more deliberate and structured interview approach is crucial.

Before a sensitive interview, it's vital to carefully plan the progression of your questions. The goal is to guide the source through difficult topics efficiently, ensuring they only have to recount painful experiences a single time. For example, a parent discussing the loss of a child should ideally only need to recall the specifics of their child's death once during the conversation.

### 10. Keep showing up

Vulnerable sources often go to extraordinary lengths to provide information for investigative projects. Yet, once the research phase concludes, contact frequently ceases. This abrupt disengagement can leave sources feeling exploited, deepening a sense that they were merely a means to an end for a story, especially when their personal realities remain unchanged.

Imagine a journalist who maintains daily contact with a source for weeks, only to vanish once the story is filed. This sudden absence can breed resentment and a profound sense of betrayal.

Consider the devastating [Mati fire](https://greekcitytimes.com/2025/03/13/mati-fire-guilty/), which claimed 104 lives in the outskirts of Athens in the summer of 2018. Both national and international media swarmed the area. Some reporters and crews stayed and covered the tragedy for up to three months. However, as new events unfolded in Greece and elsewhere, the journalistic gaze shifted, and many moved on, never to return.

My former colleague, Tasos Telloglou of Inside Story, chose a different path. He continued to visit Mati long after the initial media frenzy subsided. A year later, when we began working together on follow-up stories about the fire's aftermath, I - despite being new to the community - was granted immediate access and full trust. They didn’t know me; this was solely because I was collaborating with him. Tasos had earned that trust by consistently making the drive to Mati when no one else did.

His dedication was an illuminating example of how genuine care for a community's story and its ongoing realities, in stark contrast to extractive "parachute journalism," can build enduring trust and the whole different set of investigative possibilities this can bring.


## Post-publication phase

Researchers and investigative reporters tend to jump from project to project. But for the vulnerable sources that contributed to an investigation, their everyday lives continue.

Even reporters who carefully follow specific steps during the pre-reporting and the reporting phase of investigative projects may overlook the importance of the post-publication phase.

It is also worth keeping in mind that while veteran researchers might not feel like the days following publication are special, sources who are unfamiliar with the investigative process may feel differently. They can feel pressure, might think they have been exposed, or even regret having talked to someone. After publishing a story, keep the following steps in mind.

### 1. Share the story

Is the story finally out? Send it to your sources. Don’t let them find it via social media, or hear about it from other acquaintances. Even worse, don’t let them find out the story has been published only days later. Thank them once more for their contribution to the investigation and explain to them the story’s significance.

### 2. Ask for feedback

Don’t just send your sources the story and leave it at that. Ask them what they think of it. While you may not be in a position to make major changes after publication, it’s important to learn how they viewed their contribution to the story. Are their concerns properly framed in it? Do they feel that your portrayal of their reality was just?

### 3. Remain accessible

Journalists and researchers often disappear after publication, which can make vulnerable sources hesitant to trust not just them, but all journalists in the future. Be reachable to your sources, follow up on their wellbeing, and do not vanish. Working with people on the move in Greece for several years now, I often have sources of stories asking me why other journalists stopped replying to messages after they had opened their houses to them, had coffee with them, or shared childhood photos with them. Sources who have experienced these ‘parachute journalists’, will find it more difficult to trust researchers in the future and will feel that they were taken advantage of or used.

<hr class="thick">

### About the author

**Stavros Malichudis** is a reporter and editor. He has worked for the Agence France-Presse and inside story, and has participated in cross-border investigations with Lighthouse Reports and Investigate Europe. He’s member of Reporters United. His reports have been published in European media. He was shortlisted for the European Press Prize ‘21 and won the IJ4EU Impact Award ‘22. In 2019 he was selected as a fellow for BIRN's Balkan Fellowship for Journalistic Excellence (BFJE). He has been trained in data journalism at Columbia University in New York on a fellowship.

<hr class="thick">

*Published in June 2025*

Navigating Sensitive Stories: A Guide to Ethical Engagement with Vulnerable Sources
===============================

By Stavros Malichudis

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/il/illustration-vulnerable-sources-main.png)


```cik-in-short
```
**In short:** Drawing on over a decade of investigative reporting experience, this practical guide by Stavros Malichudis in collaboration with Tactical Tech offers concrete steps in working with vulnerable sources.

---

## Introduction

How should journalists and researchers approach sources who have experienced trauma? How can they do so in a way that avoids unintentionally re-traumatising them? And how can we build trust, and make sure that individuals willing to share important information with us will not be targeted or face other negative consequences?

As an investigative reporter and editor for over a decade, I have worked closely with vulnerable sources in the field. I have spoken to [shipwreck survivors](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/films/pylos-shipwreck/); victims of violent state collective expulsions known as ‘pushbacks’; exploited [land workers](https://wearesolomon.com/mag/focus-area/migration/greek-strawberries-made-in-bangladesh/) and [call center agents](https://insidestory.gr/article/teleperformance-part2); unaccompanied minors who lived on the street or had been detained for up to 48 hours in secret ‘prisons,’ which were passenger ferries running between Italy and Greece; residents who lost their neighbors and their houses in a massive fire outside of Athens in the summer of 2018; locals whose loved ones were among [the 64 people who died in 2020 in a care home in Crete, Greece](https://www.investigate-europe.eu/en/posts/death-in-paradise-how-64-care-home-residents-died-in-crete); mothers in Greece and Germany whose sons [were killed by neo-Nazis](https://wearesolomon.com/mag/format/interview/their-sons-were-murdered-by-neo-nazis-now-they-vow-to-keep-their-memory-alive/); and administration and industry insiders who became whistleblowers.

This guide draws on these experiences to address ethical concerns that span the entire investigative project lifestyle, from initial design, to implementation, and finally to engaging audiences in the post-publication phase.


## Pre-reporting phase

### 1. Understand which sources are vulnerable

First, we need to have a clear understanding of the many diverse roles and identities that a ‘vulnerable source’ can belong to. A ‘vulnerable source’ could be, but is not limited to:

* An undocumented worker or a person on the move (migrant);
* A person who lost a loved one in an accident;
* A person who lost their property in a natural disaster; and
* A whistleblower on the brink of exposing misconduct or mistreatment within a company, a state agency, or an international organisation

Focusing on vulnerable voices should be the standard practice for *any* story striving to illuminate underreported issues and hold power accountable. Vulnerable sources can enlighten perspectives, for both the researcher and the reader, by offering the opportunity to perceive a situation as thoroughly and holistically as possible.

Including vulnerable sources in your research isn't just about doing the right thing; it's also about better research. While many stories highlight the usual prominent voices, tapping into those often overlooked can uncover fresh, underexplored perspectives. It's a powerful way to make your work more inclusive and insightful.

But for these individuals, speaking to a researcher carries significant risk. Depending on their status, they could face job loss, retaliation or community rejection, risk of arrest, and more.

Given the stakes, researchers serving the public interest with their investigations have an ethical duty to protect the sources of their work. The rest of this guide presents a curated list of best practices to help researchers incorporate the voices of vulnerable sources while minimising potential harm.

### 2. Do your research before approaching vulnerable sources

Before establishing contact with an individual or a community, it’s vital that some time is dedicated to pre-reporting. Ask yourself: What do you know about the person you are willing to approach or the community they are part of? Do you have a basic understanding of the community’s manners or customs? A basic overview of the individual’s story?

Dedicate some time to answer these questions and gather some basic, initial information. This can be done through searching online, making phone calls to experts, and asking colleagues.

A good first impression can save both parties from awkward situations. It can also help create a first layer of trust; people appreciate it when others have made the effort to learn things about them.

#### For communities:

Research the communities you are approaching, and treat them with respect by adhering to their customs. Demonstrate that you have done your due diligence and establish that this is a source-researcher relationship you are interested in building.

For instance, in some cultures men do not greet women with a handshake. In other cultures, for example, refusing to accept a drink that someone offers can be seen as lack of respect. These cultural circumstances can be difficult to navigate at times, as you balance your specific risk assessment and safety concerns with cultural practices in certain contexts (such as the fear of being poisoned by a potential adversary). Above all, try not to take cultural differences for granted — it’s vital to adapt to and enter each context with as much care and awareness as possible.

#### For individuals:

Again, research as much as possible beforehand. Demonstrate that you took the time to learn about whoever you are approaching. If that person carries with them a traumatic experience, thorough research before meeting them can help avoid re-traumatisation. A journalist's due diligence involves gathering as much context as possible to understand what is at stake for the source.

When I first worked on the [story of the care home](https://www.investigate-europe.eu/en/posts/death-in-paradise-how-64-care-home-residents-died-in-crete) in Crete, Greece, where 64 people died in a single year, some of the relatives who lost loved ones had already talked to the media. Having read their interviews, when I met with them I was able to ask more targeted questions to get the most insightful information. Having an idea of the chain of events, I also had the opportunity to treat traumatic memories with more care.

Doing as much research as possible can help you show sources that you took the time to learn them, stick to the facts when it comes to traumatic experiences, and respectfully acknowledge the pain people share. While a long-standing saying in journalism says that there are no stupid questions, perhaps the only stupid question that could be posed to a vulnerable source is one that will unnecessarily make them re-experience their trauma.

 

### 3. Plan your initial approach

Often, the best way to approach sources who might be hesitant to talk to you is through people who can vouch for your integrity, your credibility, and your ethical standards.

These could be mutual acquaintances, like an NGO that you have worked with before. Or, perhaps you know members of the same community who can introduce you to your potential source.

If the individual has a public social media profile, you can search for possible common connections. This allows for a smoother approach, as well as a better informed pre-reporting phase.


### 4. Recognise the power balance between you and your sources

Researchers should clearly understand the power dynamics at play when working with vulnerable sources. A vulnerable source inherently holds less power than a reporter. This imbalance can stem from a source's level of wealth or income, legal status, social standing, age, race, ethnicity, nationality, religion, or other factors.

Researchers need to take power imbalances in mind when designing an investigation. They must have in mind the insecure position of their source, their ethical duty to protect them and treat them with care, and the possible challenges that may arise during the research phase, and beyond.



## Research phase

### 1. Explain yourself

The success of a research project involving vulnerable sources often comes down to how you explain yourself, the process you follow, the outcomes of the research project, and any possible implications such as short or long-term risks posed to your sources in this case.

Vulnerable sources are entitled to clear explanations of the above, as early on as possible in the process.

Researchers should keep in mind that their sources may not be familiar with their research or its possible implications. Researchers need to provide this context themselves and explain each aspect of a research project as needed.

As early as possible in the process, researchers must seek agreement with sources on these major aspects:

#### The nature and level of involvement:

What is it exactly that you want to gain from your sources? Will this require a single interview or a series of meetings? Should they also expect phone calls from you? Do you expect them to be available for a set period of time, e.g., for the duration of a trial? Is your editor, a photographer, or a fact-checker going to call them later on?

#### The duration and timing of the engagement:

Very often, vulnerable sources contribute to time-sensitive research projects. For instance, when investigating how governments and organisations used funds provided by the EU for the accommodation of asylum seekers, I met a family who stayed in one of these housing units in Athens. The NGO responsible for them was receiving millions of euros from the EU, but photos the family captured showed that conditions inside their apartment were horrific. They wanted to expose the conditions, but it was best for them to do so after they had left the apartment, due to a fear of being identified.

Similar conditions may occur when a company whistleblower wishes to denounce internal processes. It may be better to publish any material only *after vulnerable sources* have left these environments. Time of publication should be agreed upon early on to avoid frustration on both sides. No surprises!

#### The format:

When you interview a vulnerable source, will you quote them in full, or will you rephrase or paraphrase their words? Before recording a source’s voice or likeness through photos or videos, always obtain informed consent, taking care to explain how this material will be used. When recording their voice, for example, state from the outset whether it is strictly for your own note-taking or for inclusion in the publication of the story.

#### Publication details:

Where will the story be published, and in what context? In what languages and formats will the outcome be available?

#### Fact-checking:

Information provided by vulnerable sources, in fact by *any* sources, must be corroborated independently. This can be tiring or disappointing for people who share their trauma with you. Consider the [Pylos shipwreck](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/films/pylos-shipwreck/), the largest in the Mediterranean in recent years, which claimed the lives of over 600 men, women, and children. Some survivors said they had stayed in the water for an hour before a Greek Coast Guard vessel came to their rescue. Others said it was closer to half an hour. While probing such details can feel insensitive given the immense suffering, these discrepancies still require meticulous fact-checking.

For sources unfamiliar with journalistic processes, it's crucial to explain that independent verification is paramount to upholding the integrity and validity of any investigation. This transparent communication also means being clear that some information, no matter how personally significant, may not be included in the final report if it cannot be independently verified.

Clarifying these aspects in advance can help you manage expectations, maintain trust, and mitigate frustrations.

 

### 2. Let sources know they are also in control

All human relations come with power dynamics. Usually, journalists have power over sources, as they ultimately decide what to include in a piece or not. But with sources, especially vulnerable sources, it’s important to know that they are also in control of their own story.

One of the first steps I follow when working with vulnerable sources is to make clear to them that they have the option to decide if specific information shared with me is on the record, off the record, or on background. In other words, if they don’t want to answer a specific question, they don’t have to.

They should also have the opportunity to pause an interview, if at any time they feel the need to do so. As researchers, we should show patience. Give them the time and space they need, and don’t pressure them. Resist the urge to fill pauses, or periods of silence.

If a discussion touches on tragic events, don’t just keep pushing for answers. Take a break when the person seems distressed or simply wants to stop.


```cik-note
```
>**Some terms to explain to your sources:**
>
>* **On the record:** Unless explicitly agreed otherwise, any conversation with a journalist is considered ‘on the record’. This means everything a source says can be quoted directly, attributed by name, and published. It's the highest level of transparency and accountability, allowing readers to see precisely who said what.
>
>* **Off the record:** When something is ‘off the record,’ the journalist agrees that the information provided cannot be published or attributed to the source. Journalists and sources must mutually agree that a conversation is ‘off the record’ before any information is shared.
>
>* **On background:** When a conversation is ‘on background,’ journalists can publish and quote the information provided by a source, but cannot identify the source by name or otherwise attribute that information to the source using other identifiable information. Researchers can describe the source as accurately as possible, for example as ‘a source familiar with the incident’ or ‘an employee on the field’, without revealing the source’s identity.
>


### 3. Give it time

In 2019, during a months-long investigative project, I was tracking unaccompanied migrant children in Greece. These kids faced unimaginable challenges; some had experienced homelessness, others had been detained in police stations for months.

As I worked to build trust and gather information, my editor offered a brilliant piece of advice: “just hang out with them.” No recording, no note-taking, just hanging out. Do what they do. Spend an afternoon with them, then another, without the pressure of collecting material for the written piece I had in mind.

This approach was illuminating. It allowed me to visualise and truly understand the humanity of my potential sources first. It fostered a more natural, less rushed relationship, letting things unfold organically. Investigations, especially with vulnerable sources, demand time.

That fellowship taught me a crucial lesson about building trust. When sources sense genuine care for their story, they often become your strongest advocates, introducing you to others and vouching for your credibility. It's a powerful ripple effect that extends far beyond any single interview.

### 4. Explain the possible implications

Letting vulnerable sources know they’re also in control is related to your responsibility to inform them about the possible implications that may arise for them by speaking to you.

For instance, a few years back I worked on an investigation exposing labor exploitation and racism in a call-center giant in Greece. One of the main sources, an ex-employee of the company, insisted on speaking on the record. Although it’s always better for the validity of an investigation that sources speak on the record, it was my duty back then to inform the person that, given the practices in that specific sector, speaking publicly against the industry’s major company could mean that employers in his sector would no longer want him at their company.

The source took a few days to think on this. He decided to still do it, as he saw his professional future in an entirely unrelated field. It was his choice in the end, but it was my responsibility to provide context that he wasn’t necessarily aware of.

In other cases, when a source shares potentially identifying or incriminating information, it is imperative that a researcher might ask: “Are you sure you want to share this?” - This reminds the source of the risks and empowers them to decide what to share and withhold.


### 5. Don’t create expectations

“Why should I speak to you?” - This is a question I often get from residents of refugee camps across Greece. - “You do your story, what will I get?”

Vulnerable sources might be in dire need of financial aid or of state documents that could make their life move forward, to name just two examples. You might be asking them to talk to you at a time when they feel their life is falling apart.

Researchers should make sure not to exploit the hopes of vulnerable sources. Simply put, don’t offer things in return for information, and don’t promise what you cannot deliver.

It is imperative to explain that the actual impact of your story, especially for the individual’s own story, might be limited. But you should also explain that your research will contribute to holding power to account, and may contribute to a wider impact beyond this one story.

While you may not be in a position to help them get certain documents, you can help them in other ways, like to let them know which NGOs offer legal support or to tell them what you know about labor inspections.


### 6. Ensure physical safety when meeting in person

Are sources talking to you at risk if someone sees them with a reporter or a researcher? Would source protection be compromised?

Physical safety during meetings demands careful planning. Be sure to consider:

* **Awareness of Surroundings:** Ensure you are not being followed. Have a good understanding of the area you are in.

* **Discreet Meeting Locations:** Avoid places where you could be easily seen. If meeting at a café, choose a seat with a direct view of the entrance. Avoid outdoor seating where you might be visible to individuals you cannot see.

* **Location Privacy:** If using taxis or ride-sharing apps to meet a vulnerable source, avoid mentioning or inputting the exact meeting address directly into the app. You can ride to a walking distance address, and get on foot from there.

* **Mobile Device Protocols:** When meeting sensitive sources, consider not carrying your mobile phone or disabling GPS to protect their safety, even if you perceive no personal risk.

* **Inform your source:** Share with your source the different steps you take to ensure their protection. This can help build trust among the two parties, but it can also lead to valuable feedback on the specifics.

 

### 7. Ensure digital safety

In-person meetings are not the only form of communication in need of security. Securing digital communication is also paramount. This includes:

* **Password Protection:** Keep your phone password-protected.

* **Auto-Delete Messages:** Utilise features that automatically delete messages. Most applications (like Signal, WhatsApp) have this feature.

* **Encrypted Communication:** Avoid standard phone lines and SMS. Prioritise encrypted messaging apps like Signal, which is favored by researchers and academics due to its strong security.

* **End-to-End Encryption:** Opt for services designed with privacy, where end-to-end encryption is standard, ensuring only you and your source can read messages.


```cik-note
```
>**Digital Security Resources**
>
>For fundamentals on digital security, physical security and wellbeing as well as risk assessment, you can start with articles and guides such as:
>
>* Security in a Box guides and tutorials: [https://securityinabox.org/](https://securityinabox.org/) 
>* Safety First guide: [https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/safety.html](https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/safety.html) 
>* Risk Assessment guide: [https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/articles/risk-assessment-mindset](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/articles/risk-assessment-mindset) 
>* Holistic Security manual: [https://holistic-security.tacticaltech.org/](https://holistic-security.tacticaltech.org/) 
>

### 8. Handle documents securely

For sensitive investigations, physical transfer of documents can sometimes be the safest method, such as through mail or direct delivery. Physical transfer doesn’t leave metadata. Edits can’t be tracked. This was reportedly how Edward Snowden provided documents to reporters, according to ["Snowden's Box: Trust in the Age of Surveillance"](https://www.versobooks.com/products/852-snowden-s-box?srsltid=AfmBOop4rkUd1yEAj2yNWs2yL5PTqlrs3MMKtHk7bmUuARbO0H0-Ckhi) by Jessica Bruder and Dale Maharidge, two experienced journalists who worked behind the scenes of the Snowden story. As the summary of the book notes, "The biggest national security leak of the digital era was launched via a remarkably analog network, the US Postal Service."

If a source provides you with a document, you have to make sure that you properly anonymise it in case you wish to publish it together with your investigation or share it with others outside your fully trusted team. Make sure you really anonymise it. Don’t just cover content with blacked out text boxes that can be removed from the file! Image edits with specific tools can be tracked, as can metadata of the files, so one needs to very carefully work on this to ensure full source protection.

 

```cik-note
```
>**Metadata** refers to information that describes the properties of a file, be it an image, a document, a sound recording, a map, etc. For example the contents of an image are the visible elements in it, while the date when the image was taken, the location and device information constitute its metadata. In communications – when sending a message or a file - metadata includes details about who sent it, when, where from, and to whom, among others. See more here: [https://ssd.eff.org/module/why-metadata-matters](https://ssd.eff.org/module/why-metadata-matters "https\://ssd.eff.org/module/why-metadata-matters").
>

Of course, file and data anonymisation has its drawbacks. Often it means altering evidence, so you will need to make sure you safely preserve original, unaltered versions of files for any possible situations that might arise, including, for example, court procedures.    

In 2022, after months of investigation, Greece's National Transparency Authority (NTA) released a redacted report addressing allegations of illegal pushbacks of asylum seekers. The report's conclusion: no such pushbacks had occurred. However, researchers quickly discovered a critical flaw: basic digital design tools were all that was needed to remove the blacked-out sections intended to protect the anonymity of the report's sources, thereby compromising the identities of the individuals who had informed the research.


```cik-tip
```
> See more tips and examples about data anonymisation in these articles:
>
>* “How Data Journalists Can Use Anonymization to Protect Privacy”, GIJN: [https://gijn.org/stories/how-data-journalists-can-use-anonymization-to-protect-privacy/](https://gijn.org/stories/how-data-journalists-can-use-anonymization-to-protect-privacy/)
>
>* “Privacy and data leaks: How to decide what to report”: [https://datajournalism.com/read/longreads/privacy-and-data-leaks](https://datajournalism.com/read/longreads/privacy-and-data-leaks)
>
>* “Why does The New York Times use anonymous sources?”, The New York Times, [https://www.nytimes.com/article/why-new-york-times-anonymous-sources.html](https://www.nytimes.com/article/why-new-york-times-anonymous-sources.html)
>
>* “Here are 12 principles journalists should follow to make sure they’re protecting their sources”, NiemanLab: [https://www.niemanlab.org/2019/01/here-are-12-principles-journalists-should-follow-to-make-sure-theyre-protecting-their-sources/](https://www.niemanlab.org/2019/01/here-are-12-principles-journalists-should-follow-to-make-sure-theyre-protecting-their-sources/)
>
>* “Investigative Journalism: How to Develop and Manage your Sources”, Al Jazeera Journalism Review: [https://institute.aljazeera.net/en/ajr/article/investigative-journalism-how-develop-and-manage-your-sources](https://institute.aljazeera.net/en/ajr/article/investigative-journalism-how-develop-and-manage-your-sources)
>
>* “Media Defense Guide for Investigative Journalists”, Media Defence: [https://gijn.org/stories/legal-help-for-journalists/](https://gijn.org/stories/legal-help-for-journalists/) (see more resources from Media Defense here: [https://www.mediadefence.org/resource-hub/](https://www.mediadefence.org/resource-hub/)
>
>* “The Perugia Principles for Journalists Working with Whistleblowers in the Digital Age”: [https://whistleblowingnetwork.org/WIN/media/pdfs/Journalism-Sources-INT-Blueprint-2018-Perugia-Principles-for-Journalists.pdf](https://whistleblowingnetwork.org/WIN/media/pdfs/Journalism-Sources-INT-Blueprint-2018-Perugia-Principles-for-Journalists.pdf) 
>


### 9. Show empathy in interviews

When interviewing vulnerable sources, traditional journalistic approaches — like quickly shifting between topics — can inadvertently inflict further harm. Instead, a more deliberate and structured interview approach is crucial.

Before a sensitive interview, it's vital to carefully plan the progression of your questions. The goal is to guide the source through difficult topics efficiently, ensuring they only have to recount painful experiences a single time. For example, a parent discussing the loss of a child should ideally only need to recall the specifics of their child's death once during the conversation.

### 10. Keep showing up

Vulnerable sources often go to extraordinary lengths to provide information for investigative projects. Yet, once the research phase concludes, contact frequently ceases. This abrupt disengagement can leave sources feeling exploited, deepening a sense that they were merely a means to an end for a story, especially when their personal realities remain unchanged.

Imagine a journalist who maintains daily contact with a source for weeks, only to vanish once the story is filed. This sudden absence can breed resentment and a profound sense of betrayal.

Consider the devastating [Mati fire](https://greekcitytimes.com/2025/03/13/mati-fire-guilty/), which claimed 104 lives in the outskirts of Athens in the summer of 2018. Both national and international media swarmed the area. Some reporters and crews stayed and covered the tragedy for up to three months. However, as new events unfolded in Greece and elsewhere, the journalistic gaze shifted, and many moved on, never to return.

My former colleague, Tasos Telloglou of Inside Story, chose a different path. He continued to visit Mati long after the initial media frenzy subsided. A year later, when we began working together on follow-up stories about the fire's aftermath, I - despite being new to the community - was granted immediate access and full trust. They didn’t know me; this was solely because I was collaborating with him. Tasos had earned that trust by consistently making the drive to Mati when no one else did.

His dedication was an illuminating example of how genuine care for a community's story and its ongoing realities, in stark contrast to extractive "parachute journalism," can build enduring trust and the whole different set of investigative possibilities this can bring.


## Post-publication phase

Researchers and investigative reporters tend to jump from project to project. But for the vulnerable sources that contributed to an investigation, their everyday lives continue.

Even reporters who carefully follow specific steps during the pre-reporting and the reporting phase of investigative projects may overlook the importance of the post-publication phase.

It is also worth keeping in mind that while veteran researchers might not feel like the days following publication are special, sources who are unfamiliar with the investigative process may feel differently. They can feel pressure, might think they have been exposed, or even regret having talked to someone. After publishing a story, keep the following steps in mind.

### 1. Share the story

Is the story finally out? Send it to your sources. Don’t let them find it via social media, or hear about it from other acquaintances. Even worse, don’t let them find out the story has been published only days later. Thank them once more for their contribution to the investigation and explain to them the story’s significance.

### 2. Ask for feedback

Don’t just send your sources the story and leave it at that. Ask them what they think of it. While you may not be in a position to make major changes after publication, it’s important to learn how they viewed their contribution to the story. Are their concerns properly framed in it? Do they feel that your portrayal of their reality was just?

### 3. Remain accessible

Journalists and researchers often disappear after publication, which can make vulnerable sources hesitant to trust not just them, but all journalists in the future. Be reachable to your sources, follow up on their wellbeing, and do not vanish. Working with people on the move in Greece for several years now, I often have sources of stories asking me why other journalists stopped replying to messages after they had opened their houses to them, had coffee with them, or shared childhood photos with them. Sources who have experienced these ‘parachute journalists’, will find it more difficult to trust researchers in the future and will feel that they were taken advantage of or used.

<hr class="thick">

#### About the author

**Stavros Malichudis** is a reporter and editor. He has worked for the Agence France-Presse and inside story, and has participated in cross-border investigations with Lighthouse Reports and Investigate Europe. He’s member of Reporters United. His reports have been published in European media. He was shortlisted for the European Press Prize ‘21 and won the IJ4EU Impact Award ‘22. In 2019 he was selected as a fellow for BIRN's Balkan Fellowship for Journalistic Excellence (BFJE). He has been trained in data journalism at Columbia University in New York on a fellowship.

<hr class="thick">

*Published in June 2025*

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  1. The Kit
  2. kit-json
  3. English
# Thinking Critically About Maps: Researching, Resisting and Re-imagining the World

By Yung Au

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/il/critical-maps-cik-illustration.png)

```cik-in-short
```
**IN SHORT:** Thinking critically about maps is not just about being conscious of potential harms and biases that maps can sometimes reveal, but also a way of investigation itself. New insights, perspectives and vantage points are gained when we challenge dominant perspectives about geographies and locations. This is a case-based guide on how to critically “read” and use maps for investigation, resistance and more.

## The many Norths


Maps in Chinese are called 地圖 or “portrait of earth”, and there are
certainly many ways to paint our world (and beyond.)

The online Cambridge Dictionary _**[defines maps](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/map)**_ as “a
drawing that represents a region or place by showing the various
features of it.” Maps might present to the viewer a sprawling megacity,
a network of underground tunnels or the contours and currents of a
rambling river. However, as representations of our infinitely complex
word, maps are inherently political, subjective, and imperfect. They
contain multitudes. 

This piece aims to build on _**[other ETI Kit guides](https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/how/maps.html)**_
describing what maps can be, what we should be attuned to when we use
and build them and how they can further investigations and awareness.

Thinking critically about maps is not just about being conscious of
potential harms and pitfalls that come with them, it is also a method of
investigation itself. When we question commonly held ideas and points of
view, we gain new insights in the process.

As we unfold the maps we rely on, it is important to remember that maps,
like [other types](https://medium.com/@ODSC/9-common-mistakes-that-lead-to-data-bias-a121580c7d1f)
of [data](https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/calendar/what-data-bias-and-why-should-journalists-pay-attention-it),
have inherent biases. Maps attempt to summarize the infinitely complex
time and space we live in and are necessarily - and often usefully -
reductive, or simplified in some way.

Flat maps, for example, are always “[projected](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Map_projection&oldid=998264457)”
in _**[certain ways](https://www.vqronline.org/essays-articles/2017/01/here-be-dragons)**_,
where projections are ways to flatten the 3D globe into a 2D format (see
images below). This happens because earth is a sphere suspended in space
where there is no objective "up", "down", or "center." Therefore, every
projection reflects a deliberate set of choices decided by the
cartographer(s) and guided by certain point of views. As such,
projections have always been controversial.

One of today’s most widely used projections is the _**[*Mercator projection*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercator_projection)**_, which is
most commonly attributed to a Flemish geographer, Gerardus Mercator, in 1569. In this projection, Europe is placed at the center of the map and
the continent of Africa is distorted to look smaller than Greenland when
in reality, it is 14.5 times larger (see image below).



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f2.png)



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f3.png)



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f4.png)
*Screenshots from [thetruesize.com](http://thetruesize.com), an
interactive website that compares a country's real size which is
distorted by the Mercator projection.*


Even the parts of a map many people take for granted aren’t always
straightforward. For instance, we might be accustomed to a single
“north” that guides us and orients a map the “right way up”. However,
many norths exist, including:

- **True North:** The northern most point on the spherical earth
(which is distorted when looking at flat maps).

- **Grid north:** The north that runs upwards alongside the grid lines
on a flat map.

- **Magnetic North:** The north as indicated by a compass; the
magnetic fields that “pull” a compass’ magnet is influenced by solar
winds and the earth’s rotation, and as such, are not necessarily
situated at the northernmost point of earth at any given time. This
point regularly shifts; sometimes closer to Canada, other times
traversing towards Russia.

- **Google Maps’ North:** There is also an increasing recognition of a
“Google Maps’ North” due to the platform’s prevalence where their
north is adjusted for their particular projection used.



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f5.gif)
*Screenshot of shifting magnetic north. Source:
<https://www.forbes.com/sites/trevornace/2019/02/05/earths-magnetic-north-pole-has-officially-moved/?sh=198e7aa36862>*

Whether created by meteorologists or tech corporations, our maps vary
according to who made them and who they are intended for. Our realities
are calibrated to the mapmaker’s truths. There are entire fields of
study dedicated to the idea that maps are not objective. Approaches such
as “Decolonial Mapping”, “Indigenous Mapping” and “Radical/Critical
Cartography” in particular examine the many implications of presenting
our multi-dimensional realities on a piece of parchment or flat screen
for instance.


```cik-note
```
>
> **“Decolonial Mapping”, “Indigenous Mapping” and “Radical/Critical
> Cartography”**
>
> These spheres of knowledge production have various definitions and
> often overlap but some simple definitions would be:
>
>- Decolonial and Postcolonial Mapping seeks to resist maps and
> map-making legacies that stem from settler colonialism and imperial
> projects.
>
> - Indigenous Mapping in particular seeks to recenter
> Indigenous mappings and cartographies as spatial practices of
> world-making; a practice that has a long history. See:
> [*Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization*](https://utpjournals.press/loi/cart), Vol 55, No 3
> (utpjournals.press), and _**[*The Decolonial Atlas.*](https://decolonialatlas.wordpress.com/)**_
>
>- Radical Cartography is the practice of map-making that aims to
> subvert the status quo and promote social change. Radical referring
> to grasping at the root of the problem. See: [*The Search for a Radical Cartography - Cartographic
> Perspectives*](https://cartographicperspectives.org/index.php/journal/article/view/cp68-denil)
> and [*An Atlas of Radical Cartography.*](http://www.an-atlas.com/)
>
>- [Critical Cartography](#term-critical-cartography) and Critical Geography more generally is a wide
> field of practices grounded in _**[critical theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_theory)**_, with the
> starting point that maps are not objective and instead, reflects and
> perpetuate relations of power. See: [*Antipode Online*](https://antipodeonline.org/) (for publications of the
> radical geography community) and [*The Occupied Times – Critical Cartography.*](https://theoccupiedtimes.org/?p=13771)


However, despite these inherent shortcomings, these bodies of work also
remind us that maps and map-making are often central to investigations,
storytelling, resistance, governance efforts and daily life. They can
enforce territorial claims, empower communities and erase certain
realities. Maps can also take on many forms - on paper, in virtual
space, or even _**[as words](https://placesjournal.org/series/poems-as-maps/)**_ - as long as
they help situate oneself in the wider world.



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f1.png)
*Examples of popular map projections. Source: <https://map-projections.net/singleview.php> (you can explore more
“projections” here <https://decolonialatlas.wordpress.com/category/alternative-projections/>)*


<br/>

## The critical map

Now that we’ve clarified that maps are not completely objective, how can we think critically about maps when conducting research and investigation?
This section presents some examples of mapping elements to break down for new insights:

- The Vertical and Beyond

- Missing Data

- Careful Crowdsourcing

- Mapping Infrastructures and Authorities

### The vertical and beyond

Maps are often flat and presented with a
[bird’s-eye-view](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird%27s-eye_view). This
is great for convenience, but it is important to remember that these
orientations are not fixed and can be adjusted for further insights.
Think, for instance, of the top-down view of mapping compressing our
multi-tiered world into a single layer, collapsing certain nuances on
the vertical axes of life.

The spaces we inhabit always extend vertically and volumetrically.

```cik-note
```
>
> **Vertical** refers to the direction or alignment of being upwards and
> downwards; the right angles to a horizontal plane.
>
> **Volumetric** refers to thinking in terms of measurements through the
> volume of a city (rather than of area), for instance the density or
> compactness of activities in a given urban space. Read more at
> [*Volumetric Sovereignty*](https://www.societyandspace.org/forums/volumetric-sovereignty).
>


For example, Hong Kong contains some of the most vertical and voluminous
localities in the world. Home to some of the busiest and densest square
miles, social life is built in and around the mountainous and oceanic
terrains that underlies the city. With winding underpasses that turn
into overpasses, miles of continuous elevated footpaths and outdoor
escalators, and with life teeming from the sub-terrain layers to the
rooftops of skyscrapers, the urban sprawl is not easily captured in the
flat map (see image below).



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f5.png)
*Images of Hong Kong, by Yung Au*

Here, charting the nuances along these axes of life is often important.

```cik-example
```
>
> See for example, the investigations into the [Kowloon Walled City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kowloon_Walled_City), a settlement
> in Hong Kong that was demolished in 1993 due to safety concerns. It
> was best known for its later years as a dense and haphazard enclave
> where by 1990 it was home to 50,000 residents within its 2.7 hectare
> borders. Formidable, unruly and crowded, Kowloon Walled City
> constituted of 500 interconnected high-rise building, living quarters,
> shops, classrooms and other structures, stacked haphazardly on top of
> each other. The settlement grew organically without any one particular
> architect and came under the control of various triads and families
> over the years.
>
> Investigations into the Walled City required attention to the stacked,
> vertical nature of these interwoven structures. See for example,
> below, the hyper-detailed maps published in 1997 by Japanese
> anthropologist, Kani Hioraki and a team of researchers. Collapsing the
> vertical axis here meant omitting a great deal of the uneven, overlaid
> labyrinthine structure of the settlement and the lives that stretched
> upwards. Likewise, modern day recreations of the Walled City attend
> carefully to its precarious, stacked nature - including how, despite
> the disorder, all the buildings were arranged to be just under 14
> floors to avoid the low flying planes that landed at the nearby
> airport, and how the extensive water system consisting of 77 wells,
> rooftop tanks and electric pumps were organized to allow water to
> trickle down to reach its inhabitants.
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f8-1.jpg)
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f8-2.jpg)
>
> *Images: 1997 illustrations of the Kowloon Walled City by Japanese
> researchers led by anthropologist Kani Hioraki (published in Daizukai
> Kyuryujo, 1997)*
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f9.jpg)
> *Image: a depiction of the Kowloon walled city which illustrates how
> important it is to pay attention to the vertical axis and the
> difficulties of flattening a map. Image source:
> <https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/article/1191748/kowloon-walled-city-life-city-darkness?utm_medium=website&utm_source=archdaily.com>*
>


As such, during an investigation it might be good to **ask whether the
vertical, volumetric aspects of the environment might be important** (also
see S. Elden, [*Secure the volume: Vertical geopolitics and the depth of power*](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271581542_Secure_the_volume_Vertical_geopolitics_and_the_depth_of_power), Political Geography, vol. 34, pp. 35–51, 2013.).

Some starting questions to ask are:

- **What dimensions and details might be missing in a flat, bird-eye-view map?**

- **Are the uneven topographies, elevation, and city structures important in this investigation?** In movements, conflicts and clashes, the vertical elements are often important, for instance:

- see Củ Chi tunnels used during the 1955 – 1975 US and Vietnam
War ([Củ Chi tunnels - Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%E1%BB%A7_Chi_tunnels)
and figure below);

- see the multi-level occupation of the West Bank as examined by
Eyal Weizman in [*The Politics of Verticality*](https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/article_801jsp/) (also see [a lecture on the
topic](https://forensic-architecture.org/programme/events/the-politics-of-verticality-the-architecture-of-warfare-in-the-west-bank))
and Helga Tawil Souri in [*Digital occupation: Gaza's high-tech
enclosure*](https://web.archive.org/web/20210726200358/https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/journals/jps/v41i2/f_0025106_20500.pdf) -
from the strategic locations of valleys and mountains in the landscape to the politics of water, sewage, and militarization of airspace;

- see the 2019-2020 [city-wide protests in Hong Kong](https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/12/16/hong-kongs-protest-movement-and-the-fight-for-the-citys-soul) that adapted to all levels of the city from the underground train stations to skyscrapers.

- **Are there elements of conflicts over [air-space](https://web.archive.org/web/20210726202040/https://repository.asu.edu/attachments/216876/content/Knight_asu_0010N_18894.pdf) or sea-space in the investigation?** These are becoming increasingly important arenas to pay attention to as our [urban expansions continue](https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2019/feb/05/super-tall-super-skinny-super-expensive-the-pencil-towers-of-new-yorks-super-rich)up and downwards – from drone warfare to “[air rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_rights)” (rights to control and develop unused airspace above a real estate property.)


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f10.jpg)
*Image: “SUBTERRANEAN FOES: The fighting women of the Cu Chi tunnels", by Erik Pauser. Source: https://www.cabinetmagazine.org/issues/30/pauser.php*

These questions require a nuanced understanding of the case in question.
As such, **it is in your advantage to be intimately familiar with the
locality you are investigating**, or be collaborating with local
individuals and organizations as there might be important details
armchair research might miss out.

```cik-example
```
>
> **Advanced tools and examples of using them to investigate:**
>
> Advanced tools to investigate the three-dimensional [(3D)](#term-3dmodelling) world are
> becoming increasingly accessible and affordable. This includes remote
> sensing, 3D modelling, [photogrammetry](#term-photogrammetry), [Lidar](#term-lidar) scanners (which are
> beginning to be integrated with iPhone cameras), [Virtual Reality (VR)](#term-vr)
> and [Augmented Reality (AR)](#term-ar). See investigations from the research
> agency _**[Forensic Architecture](https://forensic-architecture.org/)**_,
> where these tools are utilized alongside other methods to explore
> multiple dimensions in a given case.
>
> These are basic definitions of the main processes and tools involved
> with 3D methods and analysis:
>
>- **Remote sensing** - is the process of gathering information about
> an object of phenomenon is done without physical contact with the
> object.
>
>- **3D modelling** - is the process of developing a 3D representation
> of an object or place using specialized software
>
>- **Photogrammetry** - is the process of extracting 3D information
> from photographs.
>
>- **Lidar -** is a method for calculating ranges by targeting an
> object with a laser and measuring the time for the reflected light
> to return to the receiver.
>
>- **Virtual Reality (VR)** - is the creation of a simulated
> environment.
>
>- **Augmented reality (AR)** - is a way of enhancing an environment by
> superimposing computer-generated information on top of the real
> world.
>
> At Forensic Architecture, 3D modelling
> (physical or digital), VR and photogrammetry methods are used to
> better examine the landscape from images, camera positions, how events
> unfolded relative to one another. Understanding the perspectives of
> any given source is useful to establish what was within the frame and
> what remains outside – giving “investigators a fuller picture of how
> much is known, or not, about the incident they are studying”
> ([Forensic Architecture](https://forensic-architecture.org/methodology/3d-modelling).)
>
> 3D modelling was used as part of their investigation on
> “[Environmental Racism in Death Alley, Louisiana](https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/environmental-racism-in-death-alley-louisiana)”
> (1718-Ongoing) in partnership with RISE St. James (see images below).
> Here they reconstructed an interactive 3D representation of a
> ‘typical’ sugarcane plantation in the lower Mississippi River. Based
> from a composite of several plantations and cartographic evidence,
> along with historical archives, property surveys, interview
> transcripts and other data, the 3D representations helped communicate
> the scales and the logics of these plantations which “was at once
> industrial facility, farm, prison, death camp, and luxury estate”.
>
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f12.png)
>
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f11.png)
> *Source: [Forensic Architecture](https://forensic-architecture.org/),
> “[Environmental Racism in Death Alley,
> Louisiana](https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/environmental-racism-in-death-alley-louisiana)”:
> https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/environmental-racism-in-death-alley-louisiana*
>
> Virtual Reality (VR) is used in their investigation into “[The Killing of Mark
> Duggan](https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/the-killing-of-mark-duggan)”
> (see image below.) As part of a civil claim against the UK’s
> Metropolitan Police, Forensic Architecture developed a VR environment
> that emulated the event as it unfolded to illustrate the various
> inconsistency in police testimonies.
>
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f13.png)
> *Source: [Forensic Architecture](https://forensic-architecture.org/),
> “The Killing Of Mark Duggan”: <https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/the-killing-of-mark-duggan>*
>
> Photogrammetry was used in their investigation into the “[Destruction
> and Return in Al-Araqib](https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/destruction-and-return-in-al-araqib)”
> (see figure x). Forensic Architecture collaborated with local
> families, Zochrot and PublicLab to collect evident on the history of
> the village of al-Araqib in the northern Naqab desert. Synthesizing
> aerial footage, archaeological survey, images taken from cameras
> suspended from kites, and photogrammetry, they launched a navigable
> digital platform that documents the expulsion, destruction, but also
> the ongoing life and resistance in the region.
>
> This platform aims to support a legal petition by the al-Tūri family
> of al-Araqib.
>
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f14.png)
> *Source: [Forensic Architecture](https://forensic-architecture.org/),
> “Destruction and Return in al-Araqib”: <https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/destruction-and-return-in-al-araqib>*
>


In sum, new insights might be possible in a careful examination of
space. Social lives sprawl across all sorts of directions - what are we
missing in our fixation of the horizon?


### Missing data

While it may seem that we have thoroughly scoured the corners of our
world, many things remain unmapped, unrecorded and obscured. For
example, much of our oceans are still unexplored — while Google Maps
uses infra-red modelling to infer contour lines on the ocean floors, and
this is still only an approximation. See more about this in _**[*Here Be
Dragons. Finding the Blank Spaces in a Well-Mapped World*](https://www.vqronline.org/essays-articles/2017/01/here-be-dragons)**_ by [Lois Parshley.](https://www.vqronline.org/people/lois-parshley)

Writing about the wider world of missing data, Nigerian-American artist
and researcher [Mimi Ọnụọha](https://mimionuoha.com/) states that blank
spots often “exist in spaces that are otherwise data-saturated,” and
that a lack of data “typically correlates with issues affecting those
who are most vulnerable in that context” (see _**[*Missing Datasets*](https://mimionuoha.com/the-library-of-missing-datasets)**_ by Mimi
Onuoha. 2020.).

**What might our maps be missing and what can this tell us?**

The late British geographer [J.B. Harley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brian_Harley) was
particularly fixated on this question and wrote about what he called
“cartographic silence” in maps — where blank spots are not necessarily
the result of mistakes, ignorance, or technical issues, but rather part
of the map itself where “silence can reveal as much as it conceals” (see
more in “Cartographic Abstraction in Contemporary Art: Seeing with
Maps”, by Claire Reddleman - book published in 2017 by Routledge - also
available here: <https://www.clairereddleman.com/chapters-of-cartographic-abstraction-in-contemporary-art-seeing-with-maps>).
For instance, colonial maps of the Americas often erased Indigenous
locations and names as a way of showing that these lands were
“available” for settlement (see [Anita Lucchesi](https://www.annitalucchesi.com/) [*'Indians Don't Make Maps': Indigenous Cartographic Traditions and
Innovations*](https://doi.org/10.17953/aicrj.42.3.lucchesi), American
Indian Culture and Research Journal, 42(3), 2018; and  J. B. Harley,
[*Silences and secrecy: the hidden agenda of cartography in early modern
Europe*](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03085698808592639), Imago Mundi, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 57–76, 1988.

Likewise, in 2014, Brazilian geography scholar André Reyes Novaes argued
that Rio de Janeiro’s official maps mostly ignored the city’s informal
*favela* neighborhoods until the 1990s where this “silencing” was
indicative of the indifferent attitude of the political elites towards
favelas – the omission being a way of flattening the complexity and
humanity of life in these settlements (see A. R. Novaes, [*Favelas and
the divided city: mapping silences and calculations in Rio de Janeiro’s
journalistic cartography*](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14649365.2013.872285), in Social & Cultural Geography, vol. 15, no.
2, pp. 201–225, 2014.)

Mapping the unmapped is then a way of investigation, activism and
resistance. For example, formed in the mid-70s, _**[Unnayan](http://www.an-atlas.com/contents/unn_sen.html)**_ was a
collective of “radical planners” in Kolkata (formerly Calcutta, the
capital of India's West Bengal state) who mapped missing spaces as part
of their fight for dwelling rights for the working poor (see image
below). They sought to place on the map the various unauthorized
settlements that were labelled as vacant land on government issued maps.
With the community of dwellers, they created maps that made these
settlements visible, which also helped implement and document water
systems, drainage schemes and roadways. These maps became an important
part of gaining recognitions for housing rights at the national and
international levels (see Unnayan / Jai Sen: <http://www.an-atlas.com/contents/unn_sen.html>.)


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f15.png)
*Source: “An Atlas of Radical Cartography”: <http://www.an-atlas.com/contents/unn_sen.html>*

Different maps will have different information voids. For an
illustration of this, see Sterling Quinn’s work on _**[*Geographies of
Empty Spaces*](https://cartographicperspectives.org/index.php/journal/article/view/1591/1871)**_.
Through a detailed comparison of various paper and digital maps of
Washington in the United States, Quinn found varying patterns of missing
data, defined as areas where no map features appear (see image below).

In an investigation then, it is important to be aware of the biases of
any particular map and _**[triangulate data](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangulation_(social_science))**_
where possible.



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f16.png)
*Image: Sterling Quinn’s research on “empty spaces” in maps. Row above indicates the digital maps she compared, row below indicates the paper maps she used. Black shaded area represents areas where no map features appear. Source: <https://cartographicperspectives.org/index.php/journal/article/view/1591/1871>*

**If certain communities, activities, and landscapes are hidden from view, how can you tell what is swept under the rug?**

Some starting questions to ask include:

- **Whose maps does the investigation rely on, and what missing data might exist?** What features of a map might a mapping authority deem
unimportant or worth hiding?

- **Are certain parts of the map blurred, pixelated or only available in
low resolutions?** This is a common practice in satellite maps for
particularly strategic locations such as military airbases, refugee
camps, power plants, and important infrastructures. Examining the
selective obscuring of particular features of a map can be a useful
investigative tool - see [Federation of American Scientists](https://fas.org)’ investigation into how blurring of
satellite images can reveal the exact location of secret facilities:
[*Widespread Blurring of Satellite Images Reveals Secret Facilities*](https://fas.org/blogs/security/2018/12/widespread-blurring-of-satellite-images-reveals-secret-facilities/).
Also, see this crowdsourced Wikipedia entry [*List of satellite map images with missing or unclear data*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_satellite_map_images_with_missing_or_unclear_data).”

- **Are the maps intentionally outdated?** Some maps intentionally depict
an older time period or omit data within certain timeframes. For
example, see the [Associate Press’ investigation](https://web.archive.org/web/20210926124230/https://www.jacksonville.com/article/20110822/NEWS/801245757) into post-9/11 obfuscation in US maps (original link: <https://www.jacksonville.com/article/20110822/NEWS/801245757> /
archived with Waybac Machine [here.](https://web.archive.org/web/20210926124230/https://www.jacksonville.com/article/20110822/NEWS/801245757))

- **Might the map have vague or misleading labels or features?** This is a
common tactic to direct unwanted attention away from a certain area.
For instance, military and intelligence assets are often omitted
from UK maps, or labelled as “farms” and ambiguous entities such as
“depot,” “works,” or “disused airfield” (see, as an example the
article of C. Perkins and M. Dodge, _**[*Satellite imagery and the spectacle of secret spaces*](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016718509000517)**_, in *Geoforum*, vol. 40, no. 4, pp.546–560, 2009.)

Sometimes maps omit important data due to technical and design decisions
too. For instance, “cartographic generalization” is a common process in
digital geographic systems such as Geographic Information System (GIS).
Cartographic generalization controls how much detail is represented in a
map where trade-offs are necessary (where this is shaped by human and/or
automated decisions). This can result in problems such as the
[Baltimore phenomenon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartographic_generalization),
the tendency for a city to be omitted from maps due to space constraints
while smaller cities are included on the same map because there is enough space to display them (also see more details in this useful _**[*General
Cartography* syllabus](https://www.eiilmuniversity.co.in/downloads/General_Cartography.pdf)**_ from Eiilm University, page 44 for Baltimore
Phenomenon - syllabus archived with Wayback Machine [here](https://web.archive.org/web/20210926125211/https://www.eiilmuniversity.co.in/downloads/General_Cartography.pdf)).
The city of Baltimore in the United States is often omitted on maps of certain scales due to the presence of larger cities in close proximity of it, despite the fact that smaller cities often appear at these same scales. For further reading on
this topic see: _**[*How to Map Nothing*](https://placesjournal.org/article/how-to-map-nothing/)**_ (Shannon Mattern, March 2021) on Placesjournal.org.

With so many ways to obscure or hide data, it is important not to assume
that any one map is definitive. It might be important to consult a
variety of sources and to not write-off paper or locally created maps.
At the same time, **it is important to note that not everything can be
or should be captured. There are reasons why communities and actors may
wish to remain off the maps and other radars. When investigating it is
important to acknowledge data refusal and incorporate ways to truly gain
consent.** For more about this see research by:

- E. Tuck and K. W. Yang - [*Unbecoming claims: Pedagogies of refusal in qualitative research*](https://www.sjsu.edu/people/marcos.pizarro/courses/240/s0/275TuckYang.pdf), Qualitative Inquiry, vol. 20, no. 6, pp.811–818, 2014.

- A. Simpson - [*On ethnographic refusal: Indigeneity,‘voice’and colonial citizenship*](https://pages.ucsd.edu/~rfrank/class_web/ES-270/SimpsonJunctures9.pdf), Junctures: The Journal for Thematic Dialogue, no. 9, 2007.


```cik-tip
```
> **Tips:**
>
> While filling out missing data is a valuable exercise, it is always important to ask:
>
>- Am I working with a community in a mapping project?
>
>- Does the community I am mapping wish to be counted or exposed in a
> certain way?
>
>- Do they have a say in whether they wish to be involved, the
> questions being asked, and throughout the mapping process?
>
> These questions are essential if the community at hand is marginalized
> or precarious in some way. There are ways to preserve anonymity and
> confidentiality however location data is especially revealing: see
> [controversies from the Muslim Pro App](https://nowthisnews.com/news/people-are-deleting-the-muslim-pro-prayer-app-after-learning-data-was-shared-with-us-military)
> and [phone location data mapping](https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/12/10/business/location-data-privacy-apps.html)
> as some examples.
>


### Mapping communities with careful crowdsourcing


It is important to consider whether you are mapping your own community
or a community you are not a part of. What might you be missing as an
outsider? Always remember to situate yourself in the mapping exercise,
properly contextualize your maps, and carefully consider the localities
you are studying. Ask yourself:

- Whose maps are you relying on?

- Whose knowledge and interpretation are you using?

- Who are you including and excluding?

If you are not a part of the community at hand, consider partnering with
community members in your investigation, including at the research
design stage (for further reading on this topic, see: Annita Lucchesi’s
[work](https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/full/10.3138/cart-2019-0022) on
Indigenous Mapping principles in *Spatial Data and (De)Colonization:
Incorporating Indigenous Data Sovereignty Principles into Cartographic
Research* including [her talk](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GQXc9eGp6So) on this
topic; and ideas on Co-produced Ethnography in the book [*Decolonizing Ethnography: Undocumented Immigrants and New Directions in Social Science*](https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv11smmv5) by Carolina Alonso Bejarano, Lucía López Juárez, Mirian A.
Mijangos García and Daniel M. Goldstein, 2019 Published by: Duke
University Press (reviewed [here.](https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/lsereviewofbooks/2020/04/28/book-review-decolonizing-ethnography-undocumented-immigrants-and-new-directions-in-social-science-by-carolina-alonso-bejarano-lucia-lopez-juarez-mirian-a-mijangos-garcia-and-daniel-m-goldstein/))

_**[Crowdsourcing](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/articles/it-takes-a-crowd)**_
is a popular way of involving a community in the mapmaking process, but
this method does not mean the work is necessarily being co-created, or
that participants have equal footing in the project (see more about
Collaborative Cartography _**[here.](https://gistbok.ucgis.org/bok-topics/collaborative-cartography)**_)

The critical thinking surrounding commercial maps should be extended to
other types of open-source projects too. Some questions to think about
include:

- Who is defining the questions and parameters being investigated?

- On whose terms are the information being collected and analyzed on?
Is there room for substantive feedback and change?

- What input is actually allowed from the participants?

- Who is the arbiter of what gets mapped and what does not?

- Who ultimately owns the data, maps and knowledge produced? Who are
the cited authors and who benefits?

- Is the crowdsourced data from a representative sample of the
community?

- What languages are the maps available in and will this allow for
different members of a community to contribute?

As authors of the book _**[*Indigenous Data Sovereignty*](https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n2140/pdf/book.pdf)**_,
Tahu Kukutai and John Taylor argue, data ownership, including control
over technical adjustments, content, and infrastructure, matters
immensely, particularly when indigenous and minority communities are
involved (see more in T. J. McGurk and S. Caquard, *To what extent can online mapping be decolonial? A journey throughout Indigenous cartography in Canada*, The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien, vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 49–64, 2020, doi: <https://doi.org/10.1111/cag.12602> , full pdf
[here](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339414491_To_what_extent_can_online_mapping_be_decolonial_A_journey_throughout_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada) )

Maps faces, including the thousands of [fake company listings](https://www.newscientist.com/article/2127150-thousands-of-fake-companies-added-to-google-maps-every-month/) present in its services, the map's underlying [commercial orientations](https://www.diggitmagazine.com/articles/google-maps-commercially-oriented-representation-world) and many [biases](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339414491_To_what_extent_can_online_mapping_be_decolonial_A_journey_throughout_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada) of their framework despite attempts at making mapping “open”.


```cik-note
```
>
> **Note:**
>
> While working with open-source and collaborative frameworks is generally great, it is important to remember
> that crowdsourcing data is not inherently good and that there are many elements to pay attention to (also see A. Basiri, M. Haklay, G. Foody,
> and P. Mooney, [*Crowdsourced geospatial data quality: challenges and future directions*](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13658816.2019.1593422), International Journal of Geographical Information Science, vol. 33, no. 8, pp. 1588–1593, Aug. 2019.) Critical reflection and acknowledging your own limitations while assessing when it’s important to think of _**[collaborating](https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/how/collaboration.html)**_ with other experts are crucial processes in investigations.
>


### Mapping infrastructures and authorities

It is vital to carefully think through what mapping infrastructure underpins
investigative projects. While many freely available mapping
infrastructures allow extensive customization, we need to pay attention
to what is not customizable.

Maps are tethered to certain places and jurisdictions. Both paper and digital maps often have layers of
intersecting authority. For instance, Google’s headquarters are in the
US, but it is a global company, subject to local legislation and
pressure from various communities, where maps can look different
depending on where you are accessing them from. One example is Kashmir,
a contested area of land straddling the borders of China, India, and
Pakistan. When viewing Kashmir on Google Maps from Pakistan, the borders
are disjointed and appear disputed. However, when viewing from India, a
single, smooth line carves out Kashmir as a part of India. Mapped
borders and territories are less concrete than any printed black lines
would suggest.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f17.1.png)

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f17.2.png)
*Image: The Kashmir borders on Google Maps which appear disputed when viewing from Pakistan (left). When viewed from India however, the solid,continuous border implies that Kashmir is part of India (right) 2020. Source: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rZpc2_xnSfc>*

Maps are also subjected to certain laws. For instance, many of
the largest platforms providing digital maps are based in the US
including Google Maps, Microsoft Bing Maps, and Apple Maps – and as
such, they are all subject to a law called the Kyl-Bingaman Amendment
(KBA) which was put in force in the 1997. The KBA essentially ensures
that US companies are only allowed to disseminate low resolution
satellite imagery over Israel-occupied territories (with several exceptions).
Here, the importance of who the mapping authorities are is made explicit.

```cik-note
```
>
> **Note:**
>
> It might be helpful to remember that restrictions can also be
> challenged and circumvented depending on the circumstance. See here
> for an example of a team of archaeologist who were successful in
> challenging elements of the [Kyl-Bingaman Amendment (KBA)](https://www.ox.ac.uk/news/arts-blog/oxford-archaeologists-win-access-restricted-satellite-images-israel-and-palestinian) and in reducing its restrictions.
>


For this reason, it is worth comparing various maps. See below for a
table of some popular web-based mapping services and examples of how
they differ.


||Origin|Type|Some notes on maps|
|--- |--- |--- |--- |
|OpenStreetMap (OSM)|UK|Non-Commercial|OSM is an open-source mapping project that has a large community of volunteer contributors and is the basis of many other mapping projects around the world. OSM is a non-profit entity sponsored by various universities and organizations. OSM does not track its users' activity. OSM allows and encourages their users to download its mapping databases, whereas commercial maps tend to limit data sharing through API funnels. OSM was made to be shared and built upon, so the core functionalities are intentionally basic.|
|Apple Maps|US|Commercial|Apple Maps is another popular mapping service that is pre-loaded on Apple devices. Apple Maps in China adheres to the Chinese government's data policy surrounding maps (e.g. using government-sanctioned names and territorial boundaries). Other mapping views include satellite and terrain views, 360 panoramic (Street View), “Flyover Views” and “City Tours” for certain places, among others.|
|Google Maps|US|Commercial|Google Maps is one of the most popular mapping services in the world. It supports over 54 languages and comes pre-loaded on many mobile devices. It tailors searches according to user histories and tracking networks, advertisers, and algorithmic ranking systems that are connected with Alphabet’s (Google’s parent company) larger suite of services. Different “user profiles” may prompt different mapping results. Google Maps is blocked in China, and therefore often lacks community contributions in that locality. Other mapping views include Google Earth (including satellite and terrain views), Rotation View (beta), 360 panoramic (Street View), Google Earth Virtual Reality (VR), and so forth.|
|Baidu Maps|China|Commercial|Due to China’s firewall, citizens have less access to other maps, thus locally made maps are often more detailed and contains more crowdsourced information. Baidu Maps is only available in Chinese and is commonly used in China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. Baidu Maps is blocked in India for “national security concerns”. Other mapping views include satellite views, 360 panoramic (Street View), and an “indoor view”.|
|QQ Tencent Map|China|Commercial|QQ Maps is another popular mapping service in China. The maps are available in Chinese and is particularly used in China, Taiwan and Hong Kong. Other mapping views include satellite imagery, 360 panoramic (Street View), and historical view.|
|Microsoft Bing|US|Commercial|Microsoft Bing is a popular mapping service that is supported in over 117 languages. Bing was previously banned in China, but has since been unblocked. Other mapping views include satellite, 360 panoramic (Street View), and venue maps (inside views of a location).|
|Yandex|Russia|Commercial|Yandex is a mapping service from Russia. It offers particularly detailed maps of Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Turkey, and Kazakhstan. It is available in English, Russian, Ukrainain, Kazakh, Belarusian, Bahasa Indonesia, and Tatar language. Other mapping views include satellite, 360 panoramic (Street View), and rotation view (mobile version).|
|[Native Land Maps](https://native-land.ca/) |Canada|Non-Commercial|Native Land Digital (Canadian nonprofit) provides a map of Indigenous territories, languages, and treaties. Comes with a guide on how to think critically about this particular map and beyond: https://native-land.ca/resources/teachers-guide/|
|Bhuvan|India|Government/Public|Bhuvan is a web-based utility that allows exploration of maps by the Indian Space Research Organisation. It is available in Hindi, English, Tamil, Telugu.|
|Qwant Maps (beta)|France|Commercial|Qwant Maps is launched by Qwant, a French search engine that positions itself as a privacy-respecting service that does not utilize user tracking or personalized search queries. Launched in 2019, Qwant Maps was a relative newcomer, but it builds on OSM databases. Qwant also launched Masq, an open-source technology that allows online services to offer personalized results from data securely stored on the user's device. Because Qwant is based in Europe, it adheres to European privacy laws including the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).|


Only a select few digital maps are included here but this might be a
good starting point to think about the peculiarities of any one map. Of
course, building your own map and using locally created maps are worth
considering where possible.

```cik-tip
```
>
> Through careful examinations of how maps are calibrated and crafted
> (e.g., the vertical & missing data) and who owns and creates maps
> (e.g., communities, commercial entities, or governments/jurisdictions,
> and in which languages) we can glean new insights and envision
> alternative representations of our messy, complex realities, in our
> investigations and beyond.
>


<br/>

## Maps and UnMaps

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/il/critical-maps-01-cik-illustration.png)


Maps and mapmaking can be used in countless ways — to inform, control,
resist or simply to better relate to our surroundings. This last section
is an exploration of some of the ways to use maps in an investigative
project. This list is non-exhaustive and overlapping, but it serves as a
starting point to explore what maps can do:

1. The Patterned Map
2. The Map of Reimagining
3. The Power Map
4. The Storytelling Map
5. The Real-Time Map of Protest


### The Patterned Map

**(Concerned with analysis)**

All maps contain information but some maps places patterns at the
forefront.

Some maps are static images that we use to navigate. Other maps might be
used more as a way of analysis, looking for patterns across space and
time. Maps can be compared, examined over time, and overlaid with data
in order to tease out trends, relationships, and patterns.

One example is Detroit Geographic Expedition’s map called _**[*Where Commuters Run Over Black Children on the Pointes-Downtown Track*](https://detroitography.com/2013/06/12/where-commuters-run-over-black-children-detroit-1968/)**_”
(see image below). This was part of a series of investigative projects
led by Gwendolyn Warren, which used a mixture of qualitative data,
ethnographic interviews, and personal testimonies to document the
disparities between the Black and White neighborhoods in the area. In
this particular map, Warren and a team of researchers set out to fill a
data void surrounding children’s death that were caused by car
accidents. By mapping data that was either nonexistent or not publicly
accessible, they demonstrated that accidents were clustered around
commuter traffic from wealthy White suburbs to Black neighborhoods. This
highlighted that there was a pattern with Black children’s deaths and
that each accident was not an isolated incident, but instead “indicative
that the spatial and racial injustice of the city leads to the bodily
harm of the most vulnerable members of its lower classes” (source: kanarinka, [*The Detroit Geographic Expedition and Institute: A Case Study in Civic Mapping*](https://civic.mit.edu/index.html%3Fp=220.html)” – MIT Center for Civic Media, accessed Dec. 14, 2020.)



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f18.png)
*Image: From Field Notes III: Geography of the Children of Detroit by the Detroit Geographical Expedition and Institute, 1971. Source:
<https://civic.mit.edu/index.html%3Fp=220.html>*

Another example is John Snow and Charles Cheffins’ [mapping of cholera outbreak](https://www.rcseng.ac.uk/library-and-publications/library/blog/mapping-disease-john-snow-and-cholera/)s in 19th century London (see image below). In the 1850s, cholera was
believed to be an airborne disease however John Snow, a physician at the
time, had a hunch it was transmitted through water. To investigate this,
he decided to map the cases of cholera in a particularly bad outbreak in
Soho, London. Using mortality report data from the Registrar General
Office in London and interviews with local residents, John Snow and
collaborators mapped out how deaths were clustered in the neighborhood.
The maps pointed to a link between cholera cases and a contaminated
water pump in which nearby residents were drinking from. These
documentations were eventually convincing enough to persuade the local
council to take action and for the medical profession at large to take
the waterborne theory of cholera seriously (see more in _**[this article](https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/mar/15/john-snow-cholera-map**_) by The Guardian.)



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f19.png)
*Image: Thematic map showing incidence of cholera as black bars (each bar represents a death from cholera), first shown at a meeting of the
London Epidemiological Society in 1854. Source: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1854_Broad_Street_cholera_outbreak>*

```cik-note
```
>
> **Note:**
>
> Remember to pay attention to the nuances of the particular case you
> are investigating when trying to discern patterns over space and time.
> See the ETI Kit on “[Using Maps to See Beyond the Obvious](https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/how/maps.html)” by
> Alison Kiling for examples of thematic mapping as well as datasets and base maps that are available.


### The Map of Reimagining

**(Concerned with mapping alternatives and counter-mapping)**

All maps imagine but some maps are intended to resist the status quo.

Since maps are constructed, they can be deconstructed and reconstructed.
Some maps serve to reimagine borders, territories, and places. Maps can
also rectify what was not mapped in the past, map an alternative future,
or imagine the present along different terms.

For instance, the [*Detroit Geographic Expedition*](https://detroitography.com/tag/detroit-geographic-expedition-institute/)
placed particular emphasis on “oughtness maps”, a map of how things are
and of how things ought to (should) be. In their first publication - [*Field Notes I*](https://antipodeonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/dgei_fieldnotes-i.pdf) - they remind us that “afterall, it is not the function of geographers
to merely map the earth, but to change it” (see more about the [Detroit
Geographic Expedition](https://detroitography.com/tag/detroit-geographic-expedition-institute/)
“Field Notes” [here](https://antipodeonline.org/2017/02/23/dgei-field-notes/).)

Various Indigenous mapping projects in particular have sought to counter
mainstream mapping narratives. This is especially due to how the history
of cartography has contributed to the dispossession of Indigenous
Peoples’ territories and languages. One example is the _**[Native Land Digital project](https://native-land.ca/)**_, which uses community
contributions to map out Indigenous lands, Settler-Indigenous relations, histories, treaties, and more (see image below.)

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f20.png)
*Image: Native Land (Canadian Nonprofit) a living map of Indigenous territories, languages, and treaties. Source: <https://native-land.ca/>*

Similarly, many borders and territories are arbitrarily carved out,
especially during times of colonialisation. The [*Secret Countries*](https://chimurengachronic.co.za/secret-countries/)” section
of the cartographic issue of the _**[Chimurenga Chronical](https://chimurengachronic.co.za/)**_ envisions an alternative mapping of the continent of Africa. Inspired by Archille Mbembe’s [*At the Edge of World: Boundaries, Territoriality, and Sovereignty in Africa*](https://muse.jhu.edu/article/26186), it moves beyond nation state representations of Africa, and instead offers other arrangements and depictions of Africa where territories are tied together through shared history, trade, and other flows.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f21.png)
*Image source: <https://chimurengachronic.co.za/secret-countries/>*


### The Power Map

**(Concerned with mapping relationships)**

All maps are relational but some maps places networks at the center.

Power mapping or relational mapping is also a way of analysis, but it is
more specific and often used by organizers, activists, and investigators
to identify who has what type of power in a community. These maps help
locate relevant parties, including allies and decision-makers. Power
maps can look different according to their purpose.

For example, the _**[Anti-Eviction Mapping Project](https://antievictionmap.com/)**_ produced a community power map of
Oakland in the United States, “a city that has historically faced disinvestment”. It presents a map of who and what the community values,
as well as what threatens their place during this time of city development.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f22.jpg)
*Source: Anti-Eviction project: <https://antievictionmap.com/>*

```cik-tip
```
>
> Read more about this topic in:
>
> - [Power Mapping and Analysis](https://commonslibrary.org/guide-power-mapping-and-analysis/) -
> The Commons (commonslibrary.org)
>
> - [Power mapping](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_mapping), (Wikipedia)



### The Storytelling Map

**(Concerned with communicating)**

All maps have stories, but some maps have storytelling as its main
focus.

Various strands of investigative projects have emphasized the need to
humanize data, especially in our data-saturated world (read more about
data saturation in Danah Boyd and K. Crawford, _**[*Critical Questions for Big Data*](https://people.cs.kuleuven.be/~bettina.berendt/teaching/ViennaDH15/boyd_crawford_2012.pdf)**_, Information, Communication & Society, pp. 662–679, May 2012 - full
article [here](https://people.cs.kuleuven.be/~bettina.berendt/teaching/ViennaDH15/boyd_crawford_2012.pdf).)
This extends to cartographic data. Storytelling through maps can help
embed the realities of data, communicate difficult to understand
concepts, and assist in conveying the scale or severity of an issue.

For instance, _**[*Views from the North Atlas*](http://viewsfromthenorth.ca/index.html)**_ a joint project by the
Inuit training program _**[Nunavut Sivuniksavut](https://www.nunavutsivuniksavut.ca/about-us)**_ and [Carleton University](https://carleton.ca/) in Ottawa, presents an exploration of Inuit histories in Canada (see image below). Here, interviews between
Nunavut Sivuniksavut students and elders from their home communities are
situated alongside photographs, archival materials, and cartographic
features in order to foster a living map of Inuit culture.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f23.png)
*Image source: <http://viewsfromthenorth.ca/>*

In *Narratives of Displacement and Resistance* the [Anti-Eviction
Mapping Project](http://www.antievictionmappingproject.net/narratives.html)
presents incidents of eviction along with oral histories in several US
cities (see image below.) Each red dot represents a case of eviction that
occurred, and each turquoise dot has an interview accompaniment.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f24.png)
*Image “Narratives of Displacement and Resistance” by the Anti-Eviction Mapping Project. Source:
<http://www.antievictionmappingproject.net/narratives.html>*

Likewise, geographer and artist Levi Westerveld’s _**[*Those Who Did Not Cross*](https://visionscarto.net/those-who-did-not-cross)**_ maps those who
lost their lives at sea while trying to reach European shores from
2005 to 2015 (see image below). Here, the destination countries are flattened
into a black coastline or into what one might see looking onto the
horizon. Lines of text attempt to contextualize the tragedies that
occurred.


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f25.jpg)
*Image: Levi Westerveld’s map of Those Who Did Not Cross (2005–15). Source: <https://visionscarto.net/those-who-did-not-cross>*

And, VisualizingPalestine's infographic of the Israel government’s ID system, informed by Helga
Tawil-Souri’s work, disentangles one aspect of how this larger system
controls, stratifies and controls various Palestinian communities (see
image below and Helga Tawil-Souri’s article [*Uneven Borders, Coloured (Im)mobilities: ID Cards in Palestine/Israel*](https://doi.org/10.1215/01642472-1259488), Social Text (2011) 29 (2(107)): 67–97.)


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f26.png)
*Image: Infograph by VisualizingPalestine.org: visualisation of the Complex ID Matrix informed by Helga Tawil-Souri. Source <https://visualizingpalestine.org/visual/identity-crisis-the-israeli-id-system/>.


### The Real-Time Map of Protest

**(Concerned with mapping the now)**

All maps are entangled in a certain time period but some maps are meant
to be ephemeral.

Resistance is threaded through all of the above – including resisting
information voids, resisting through narratives, and resisting borders.
The above maps are also acts of resistance in themselves with how they
reveal the multitude of injustices that may not be visible in our daily
lives. Another type of map that takes resistance at center stage is the
real-time maps of protests.

Protest maps are maps that accompany protests and conflicts in real-time
where it is important to share information, document what is happening,
and organize logistics of a movement as it unfolds. Some examples
include the _**[Hong Kong Live Map](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HKmap.live)**_ platform that accompanied
the waves of protests in Hong Kong during 2019-2020 (see image below).
Here, clashes between protestors and police were documented through
crowdsourced data and faded away as soon as the incident ended.


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f27.jpg)
*Image: Hong Kong Live Map that mapped in real time the 2019-2020 city-wide protests in Hong Kong. Source:
<https://twitter.com/hkmaplive/status/1265414473181003776/photo/1>*


```cik-example
```
>
> See also the _**[ETI Kit’s OSINT piece about ScanMap](https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/what/osint-ocean.html)**_,
> a real-time map that emerged during the Black Lives Matter protests in
> the summer of 2020 (see image below). Built by activist group [Radio12](https://radio12.org/) with
> Open Source Intelligence (OSINT) techniques, [ScanMap](https://scanmap.mobi/) is a
> free and accessible tool that maps hotspots of protest, police
> location and key points of blockades in various cities.
>
>![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f28.png)
> *Screenshot from: <https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/what/osint-ocean.html>*
>


These maps were made to be used at a specific time and meant to be
fleeting. As such, maps do not have to be permanent, and these serve as
a reminder about how map design can be more intentional.

For instance, digital maps often extract data from users and having a
centralized storage of personal data might pose a risk in terms of data
leaks or in terms of government requests where law enforcement may gain
access to data that is collected. If you are designing your own maps, be
considerate of what data (or partial data) you store and whether you are
putting anyone (including yourself) in danger.

<br/>

## Stay critical

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/il/critical-maps-02-cik-illustration.png)


> “We use maps to find our way in the world, to locate ourselves in relation to others, to measure distance and record change. Maps are inherently contextual, which can make them seem old-fashioned in a culture that values immediacy, one that operates through image and spectacle. The image is a mask, a face, a front, an arrow. The map is its opposite, not an index of the world but a way of relating to it.” (Taiyon J. Coleman, 2017, [*Poems as Maps: An Introduction*](https://placesjournal.org/series/poems-as-maps/), in <https://placesjournal.org/>).

Maps can reveal and hide. They can reinforce but also reimagine. As we
incorporate, build and consult maps in our research and investigations, we need to remember to
keep a careful, critical eye on how these maps are summarizing space and time.

What visions of the world will your maps hold?

<br/>

<hr class="thick">

_Published October 2021_

<br/>


## Resources

#### Articles and Studies


- _[Cartographic Abstraction in Contemporary Art: Seeing with Maps](https://www.clairereddleman.com/chapters-of-cartographic-abstraction-in-contemporary-art-seeing-with-maps)_, book by Claire Reddleman, 2017 Routledge.

- _[CORE](https://core.ac.uk/)_ - a large collection of open access research papers.

- _[Critical Questions for Big Data](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1369118X.2012.678878)_, by Danah Boyd and K. Crawford in 'Information, Communication & Society', pp. 662–679, May 2012.

- _[Crowdsourced geospatial data quality: challenges and future directions](https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10074777/1/IJGIS%20Editorial%2004032019ABMH.pdf)_ by A. Basiri, M. Haklay, G. Foody, and P. Mooney, International Journal
of Geographical Information Science, vol. 33, no. 8, pp. 1588–1593, Aug. 2019, doi: 10.1080/13658816.2019.1593422.

- _[Decolonizing the Map: Recentering Indigenous Mappings](https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/full/10.3138/cart.53.3.intro)_, by R. Rose-Redwood, N. Blu Barnd, A. H. Lucchesi, S. Dias, and W. Patrick, in Cartographica vol. 55, no. 3, pp. 151–162, Sep. 2020, doi: 10.3138/cart.53.3.intro.

- _[Delivery Platform Algorithms Don’t Work Without Drivers’ Deep Local Knowledge](https://slate.com/technology/2020/12/gojek-grab-indonesia-delivery-platforms-algorithms.html)_, by R. Qadri, Slate Magazine, Dec. 28, 2020 (accessed Jan. 13, 2021.)

- _[Digital occupation: Gaza's high-tech enclosure](https://web.archive.org/web/20210726200358/https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/journals/jps/v41i2/f_0025106_20500.pdf)_, by Tawil-Souri, H. in Journal of Palestine Studies, 41(2), 27-43, 2012.

- _[Favelas and the divided city: mapping silences and calculations in Rio de Janeiro’s journalistic cartography](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263556301_Favelas_and_the_divided_city_Mapping_silences_and_calculations_in_Rio_de_Janeiro%27s_journalistic_cartography)_, by A. R. Novaes, Social & Cultural Geography, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 201–225, 2014.

- _['From My Point of View': documentary](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/films/from-my-point-of-view-film)_, including [these interviews](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/interviews/hagit-diy-mapping-and-reclaiming) about aerial mapping.

- _[General Cartography syllabus](https://www.eiilmuniversity.co.in/downloads/General_Cartography.pdf)_, from Eiilm University (archived with Wayback Machine [here](https://web.archive.org/web/20210926125211/https://www.eiilmuniversity.co.in/downloads/General_Cartography.pdf).)

- _[Here Be Dragons](https://www.vqronline.org/essays-articles/2017/01/here-be-dragons)_, VQR Online, accessed Jan. 14, 2021.

- _[How to Map Nothing](https://placesjournal.org/article/how-to-map-nothing/)_, by Shannon Mattern, March 202, on
placesjournal.org.

- _[Indigenous  data sovereignty: Toward an agenda](https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n2140/pdf/book.pdf)_, by T. Kukutai and J. Taylor, Anu Press, 2016. (archived on Wayback Machine [here.](https://web.archive.org/web/20211026175552/https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n2140/pdf/book.pdf))

- _[Indians Don't Make Maps’: Indigenous Cartographic Traditions and Innovations](https://www.academia.edu/43560408/_Indians_Dont_Make_Maps_Indigenous_Cartographic_Traditions_and_Innovations)_ by A. Lucchesi, American Indian Culture and Research
Journal, vol. 42, no. 3, pp. 11–26.

- _[Maps show – and hide – key information about Ukraine war](https://theconversation.com/maps-show-and-hide-key-information-about-ukraine-war-179069)_ by Timothy Barney, The Conversation, 21 March 2022. (Archived with Wayback Machine [here](https://web.archive.org/web/20220322161249/https://theconversation.com/maps-show-and-hide-key-information-about-ukraine-war-179069))

- _[Mikel Maron: Crowdsourcing satellite imagery to document deforestation](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/articles/logging-roads-mikel-maron/)_, in Exposing the Invisible, Tactical Tech.

- _[Missing Datasets](https://mimionuoha.com/the-library-of-missing-datasets)_, by Mimi Onuoha. 2020.

- _[On ethnographic refusal: Indigeneity, ‘voice’ and colonial citizenship](https://pages.ucsd.edu/~rfrank/class_web/ES-270/SimpsonJunctures9.pdf)_, by A. Simpson in 'Junctures: The Journal for Thematic Dialogue', no. 9, 2007 (archived with Wayback Machine [here.](https://web.archive.org/web/20211031102633/https://pages.ucsd.edu/~rfrank/class_web/ES-270/SimpsonJunctures9.pdf))

- _[The Detroit Geographic Expedition and Institute: A Case Study in Civic Mapping](https://civic.mit.edu/index.html%3Fp=220.html)_, by Catherine D’Ignazio (Kanarinka.com).

- _[Secure the volume: Vertical geopolitics and the depth of power](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271581542_Secure_the_volume_Vertical_geopolitics_and_the_depth_of_power)_, by S. Elden in Political Geography, vol. 34, pp. 35–51, 2013.

- _[Silences and secrecy: the hidden agenda of cartography in early modern Europe](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03085698808592639)_, by J. B. Harley, Imago mundi, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 57–76, 1988.

- _[Starting Satellite Investigations](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/guides/starting-satellite-investigations/)_, in Exposing the Invisible, Tactical Tech.

- _[Super-tall, super-skinny, super-expensive: the ‘pencil towers’ of New York’s super-rich](https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2019/feb/05/super-tall-super-skinny-super-expensive-the-pencil-towers-of-new-yorks-super-rich)_, by O. Wainwright, in The Guardian, Feb. 05, 2019.

- _[The Highs and Lows of Asserting Tribal Airspace Sovereignty](https://web.archive.org/web/20210726202040/https://repository.asu.edu/attachments/216876/content/Knight_asu_0010N_18894.pdf)_, by Shelly Lynn Knight, 2019.

- _[The politics of verticality. Introduction to The Politics of Verticality](https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/article_801jsp/)_, by E.
Weizman in OpenDemocracy.net, April 2002.

- _[To what extent can online mapping be decolonial? A journey throughout Indigenous cartography in Canada](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339414491_To_what_extent_can_online_mapping_be_decolonial_A_journey_throughout_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada)_ by T. J. McGurk and S. Caquard in 'The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien', vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 49–64, 2020, doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/cag.12602.




## Glossary

### term-3dmodelling

**3D modelling** - the process of developing a 3D representation of an
object or place using specialized software.

### term-ar

**Augmented reality (AR)** - a way of enhancing an environment by
superimposing computer-generated information on top of the real world.

### term-critical-cartography

**Critical Cartography** and **Critical Geography** - more generally is
a wide field of practices grounded in critical theory and the starting
point that maps are not objective and instead, reflects and perpetuate
relations of power. See: [Antipode Online](https://antipodeonline.org/) and [The Occupied Times – Critical
Cartography](https://theoccupiedtimes.org/?p=13771).

### term-decolonial-mapping

**Decolonial and Postcolonial mapping** - seeks to resist maps and
map-making legacies that stem from settler colonialism and imperial
projects. **Indigenous mapping** in particular seeks to recenter
Indigenous mappings and cartographies as spatial practices of
world-making; a practice that has a long history. See: [Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization: Vol 55, No 3 (utpjournals.press)](https://www.utpjournals.press/toc/cart/55/3) and [The Decolonial Atlas (wordpress.com)](https://decolonialatlas.wordpress.com/).

### term-lidar

**Lidar** - a method for calculating ranges by targeting an object with
a laser and measuring the time for the reflected light to return to the
receiver.

### term-oughtness-maps

**Oughtness Maps** - a term that emerged from the Detroit Geographic
Expedition which refers to maps that present “how things ought to be.”

### term-photogrammetry

**Photogrammetry** - the process of extracting 3D information from photographs.

### term-radical-cartography

**Radical cartography** - the practice of mapmaking that aims to subvert
the status quo and promote social change. Radical referring to grasping
at the root of the problem. See: [View of The Search for a Radical Cartography / Cartographic Perspectives](https://cartographicperspectives.org/index.php/journal/article/view/6/14#:~:text=The%20editors%2C%20however%2C%20go%20on,to%20actively%20promote%20social%20change.&text=Some%20of%20the%20maps%20are,variety%20of%20approaches%20to%20mapmaking.) and [An Atlas of Radical Cartography](http://www.an-atlas.com/)

### term-remote-sensing

**Remote sensing** - the process of gathering information about an object of phenomenon is done without physical contact with the object.

### term-vertical

**Vertical** - refers to the right angles to a horizontal plane; the direction or alignment of being upwards and downwards.

### term-volumetric

**Volumetric** - refers to thinking in terms of measures of volume of a
city (rather than of area), for instance the density or compactness of
activities in a given urban space. Read more: [Volumetric Sovereignty (societyandspace.org).](https://www.societyandspace.org/forums/volumetric-sovereignty)

### term-vr

**Virtual Reality (VR)** - the creation of a simulated environment.
# Thinking Critically About Maps: Researching, Resisting and Re-imagining the World

By Yung Au

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/il/critical-maps-cik-illustration.png)

```cik-in-short
```
**IN SHORT:** Thinking critically about maps is not just about being conscious of potential harms and biases that maps can sometimes reveal, but also a way of investigation itself. New insights, perspectives and vantage points are gained when we challenge dominant perspectives about geographies and locations. This is a case-based guide on how to critically “read” and use maps for investigation, resistance and more.

## The many Norths


Maps in Chinese are called 地圖 or “portrait of earth”, and there are
certainly many ways to paint our world (and beyond.)

The online Cambridge Dictionary _**[defines maps](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/map)**_ as “a
drawing that represents a region or place by showing the various
features of it.” Maps might present to the viewer a sprawling megacity,
a network of underground tunnels or the contours and currents of a
rambling river. However, as representations of our infinitely complex
word, maps are inherently political, subjective, and imperfect. They
contain multitudes. 

This piece aims to build on _**[other ETI Kit guides](https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/how/maps.html)**_
describing what maps can be, what we should be attuned to when we use
and build them and how they can further investigations and awareness.

Thinking critically about maps is not just about being conscious of
potential harms and pitfalls that come with them, it is also a method of
investigation itself. When we question commonly held ideas and points of
view, we gain new insights in the process.

As we unfold the maps we rely on, it is important to remember that maps,
like [other types](https://medium.com/@ODSC/9-common-mistakes-that-lead-to-data-bias-a121580c7d1f)
of [data](https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/calendar/what-data-bias-and-why-should-journalists-pay-attention-it),
have inherent biases. Maps attempt to summarize the infinitely complex
time and space we live in and are necessarily - and often usefully -
reductive, or simplified in some way.

Flat maps, for example, are always “[projected](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Map_projection&oldid=998264457)”
in _**[certain ways](https://www.vqronline.org/essays-articles/2017/01/here-be-dragons)**_,
where projections are ways to flatten the 3D globe into a 2D format (see
images below). This happens because earth is a sphere suspended in space
where there is no objective "up", "down", or "center." Therefore, every
projection reflects a deliberate set of choices decided by the
cartographer(s) and guided by certain point of views. As such,
projections have always been controversial.

One of today’s most widely used projections is the _**[*Mercator projection*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercator_projection)**_, which is
most commonly attributed to a Flemish geographer, Gerardus Mercator, in 1569. In this projection, Europe is placed at the center of the map and
the continent of Africa is distorted to look smaller than Greenland when
in reality, it is 14.5 times larger (see image below).



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f2.png)



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f3.png)



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f4.png)
*Screenshots from [thetruesize.com](http://thetruesize.com), an
interactive website that compares a country's real size which is
distorted by the Mercator projection.*


Even the parts of a map many people take for granted aren’t always
straightforward. For instance, we might be accustomed to a single
“north” that guides us and orients a map the “right way up”. However,
many norths exist, including:

- **True North:** The northern most point on the spherical earth
(which is distorted when looking at flat maps).

- **Grid north:** The north that runs upwards alongside the grid lines
on a flat map.

- **Magnetic North:** The north as indicated by a compass; the
magnetic fields that “pull” a compass’ magnet is influenced by solar
winds and the earth’s rotation, and as such, are not necessarily
situated at the northernmost point of earth at any given time. This
point regularly shifts; sometimes closer to Canada, other times
traversing towards Russia.

- **Google Maps’ North:** There is also an increasing recognition of a
“Google Maps’ North” due to the platform’s prevalence where their
north is adjusted for their particular projection used.



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f5.gif)
*Screenshot of shifting magnetic north. Source:
<https://www.forbes.com/sites/trevornace/2019/02/05/earths-magnetic-north-pole-has-officially-moved/?sh=198e7aa36862>*

Whether created by meteorologists or tech corporations, our maps vary
according to who made them and who they are intended for. Our realities
are calibrated to the mapmaker’s truths. There are entire fields of
study dedicated to the idea that maps are not objective. Approaches such
as “Decolonial Mapping”, “Indigenous Mapping” and “Radical/Critical
Cartography” in particular examine the many implications of presenting
our multi-dimensional realities on a piece of parchment or flat screen
for instance.


```cik-note
```
>
> **“Decolonial Mapping”, “Indigenous Mapping” and “Radical/Critical
> Cartography”**
>
> These spheres of knowledge production have various definitions and
> often overlap but some simple definitions would be:
>
>- Decolonial and Postcolonial Mapping seeks to resist maps and
> map-making legacies that stem from settler colonialism and imperial
> projects.
>
> - Indigenous Mapping in particular seeks to recenter
> Indigenous mappings and cartographies as spatial practices of
> world-making; a practice that has a long history. See:
> [*Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization*](https://utpjournals.press/loi/cart), Vol 55, No 3
> (utpjournals.press), and _**[*The Decolonial Atlas.*](https://decolonialatlas.wordpress.com/)**_
>
>- Radical Cartography is the practice of map-making that aims to
> subvert the status quo and promote social change. Radical referring
> to grasping at the root of the problem. See: [*The Search for a Radical Cartography - Cartographic
> Perspectives*](https://cartographicperspectives.org/index.php/journal/article/view/cp68-denil)
> and [*An Atlas of Radical Cartography.*](http://www.an-atlas.com/)
>
>- [Critical Cartography](#term-critical-cartography) and Critical Geography more generally is a wide
> field of practices grounded in _**[critical theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_theory)**_, with the
> starting point that maps are not objective and instead, reflects and
> perpetuate relations of power. See: [*Antipode Online*](https://antipodeonline.org/) (for publications of the
> radical geography community) and [*The Occupied Times – Critical Cartography.*](https://theoccupiedtimes.org/?p=13771)


However, despite these inherent shortcomings, these bodies of work also
remind us that maps and map-making are often central to investigations,
storytelling, resistance, governance efforts and daily life. They can
enforce territorial claims, empower communities and erase certain
realities. Maps can also take on many forms - on paper, in virtual
space, or even _**[as words](https://placesjournal.org/series/poems-as-maps/)**_ - as long as
they help situate oneself in the wider world.



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f1.png)
*Examples of popular map projections. Source: <https://map-projections.net/singleview.php> (you can explore more
“projections” here <https://decolonialatlas.wordpress.com/category/alternative-projections/>)*


<br/>

## The critical map

Now that we’ve clarified that maps are not completely objective, how can we think critically about maps when conducting research and investigation?
This section presents some examples of mapping elements to break down for new insights:

- The Vertical and Beyond

- Missing Data

- Careful Crowdsourcing

- Mapping Infrastructures and Authorities

### The vertical and beyond

Maps are often flat and presented with a
[bird’s-eye-view](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird%27s-eye_view). This
is great for convenience, but it is important to remember that these
orientations are not fixed and can be adjusted for further insights.
Think, for instance, of the top-down view of mapping compressing our
multi-tiered world into a single layer, collapsing certain nuances on
the vertical axes of life.

The spaces we inhabit always extend vertically and volumetrically.

```cik-note
```
>
> **Vertical** refers to the direction or alignment of being upwards and
> downwards; the right angles to a horizontal plane.
>
> **Volumetric** refers to thinking in terms of measurements through the
> volume of a city (rather than of area), for instance the density or
> compactness of activities in a given urban space. Read more at
> [*Volumetric Sovereignty*](https://www.societyandspace.org/forums/volumetric-sovereignty).
>


For example, Hong Kong contains some of the most vertical and voluminous
localities in the world. Home to some of the busiest and densest square
miles, social life is built in and around the mountainous and oceanic
terrains that underlies the city. With winding underpasses that turn
into overpasses, miles of continuous elevated footpaths and outdoor
escalators, and with life teeming from the sub-terrain layers to the
rooftops of skyscrapers, the urban sprawl is not easily captured in the
flat map (see image below).



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f5.png)
*Images of Hong Kong, by Yung Au*

Here, charting the nuances along these axes of life is often important.

```cik-example
```
>
> See for example, the investigations into the [Kowloon Walled City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kowloon_Walled_City), a settlement
> in Hong Kong that was demolished in 1993 due to safety concerns. It
> was best known for its later years as a dense and haphazard enclave
> where by 1990 it was home to 50,000 residents within its 2.7 hectare
> borders. Formidable, unruly and crowded, Kowloon Walled City
> constituted of 500 interconnected high-rise building, living quarters,
> shops, classrooms and other structures, stacked haphazardly on top of
> each other. The settlement grew organically without any one particular
> architect and came under the control of various triads and families
> over the years.
>
> Investigations into the Walled City required attention to the stacked,
> vertical nature of these interwoven structures. See for example,
> below, the hyper-detailed maps published in 1997 by Japanese
> anthropologist, Kani Hioraki and a team of researchers. Collapsing the
> vertical axis here meant omitting a great deal of the uneven, overlaid
> labyrinthine structure of the settlement and the lives that stretched
> upwards. Likewise, modern day recreations of the Walled City attend
> carefully to its precarious, stacked nature - including how, despite
> the disorder, all the buildings were arranged to be just under 14
> floors to avoid the low flying planes that landed at the nearby
> airport, and how the extensive water system consisting of 77 wells,
> rooftop tanks and electric pumps were organized to allow water to
> trickle down to reach its inhabitants.
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f8-1.jpg)
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f8-2.jpg)
>
> *Images: 1997 illustrations of the Kowloon Walled City by Japanese
> researchers led by anthropologist Kani Hioraki (published in Daizukai
> Kyuryujo, 1997)*
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f9.jpg)
> *Image: a depiction of the Kowloon walled city which illustrates how
> important it is to pay attention to the vertical axis and the
> difficulties of flattening a map. Image source:
> <https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/article/1191748/kowloon-walled-city-life-city-darkness?utm_medium=website&utm_source=archdaily.com>*
>


As such, during an investigation it might be good to **ask whether the
vertical, volumetric aspects of the environment might be important** (also
see S. Elden, [*Secure the volume: Vertical geopolitics and the depth of power*](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271581542_Secure_the_volume_Vertical_geopolitics_and_the_depth_of_power), Political Geography, vol. 34, pp. 35–51, 2013.).

Some starting questions to ask are:

- **What dimensions and details might be missing in a flat, bird-eye-view map?**

- **Are the uneven topographies, elevation, and city structures important in this investigation?** In movements, conflicts and clashes, the vertical elements are often important, for instance:

- see Củ Chi tunnels used during the 1955 – 1975 US and Vietnam
War ([Củ Chi tunnels - Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%E1%BB%A7_Chi_tunnels)
and figure below);

- see the multi-level occupation of the West Bank as examined by
Eyal Weizman in [*The Politics of Verticality*](https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/article_801jsp/) (also see [a lecture on the
topic](https://forensic-architecture.org/programme/events/the-politics-of-verticality-the-architecture-of-warfare-in-the-west-bank))
and Helga Tawil Souri in [*Digital occupation: Gaza's high-tech
enclosure*](https://web.archive.org/web/20210726200358/https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/journals/jps/v41i2/f_0025106_20500.pdf) -
from the strategic locations of valleys and mountains in the landscape to the politics of water, sewage, and militarization of airspace;

- see the 2019-2020 [city-wide protests in Hong Kong](https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/12/16/hong-kongs-protest-movement-and-the-fight-for-the-citys-soul) that adapted to all levels of the city from the underground train stations to skyscrapers.

- **Are there elements of conflicts over [air-space](https://web.archive.org/web/20210726202040/https://repository.asu.edu/attachments/216876/content/Knight_asu_0010N_18894.pdf) or sea-space in the investigation?** These are becoming increasingly important arenas to pay attention to as our [urban expansions continue](https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2019/feb/05/super-tall-super-skinny-super-expensive-the-pencil-towers-of-new-yorks-super-rich)up and downwards – from drone warfare to “[air rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_rights)” (rights to control and develop unused airspace above a real estate property.)


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f10.jpg)
*Image: “SUBTERRANEAN FOES: The fighting women of the Cu Chi tunnels", by Erik Pauser. Source: https://www.cabinetmagazine.org/issues/30/pauser.php*

These questions require a nuanced understanding of the case in question.
As such, **it is in your advantage to be intimately familiar with the
locality you are investigating**, or be collaborating with local
individuals and organizations as there might be important details
armchair research might miss out.

```cik-example
```
>
> **Advanced tools and examples of using them to investigate:**
>
> Advanced tools to investigate the three-dimensional [(3D)](#term-3dmodelling) world are
> becoming increasingly accessible and affordable. This includes remote
> sensing, 3D modelling, [photogrammetry](#term-photogrammetry), [Lidar](#term-lidar) scanners (which are
> beginning to be integrated with iPhone cameras), [Virtual Reality (VR)](#term-vr)
> and [Augmented Reality (AR)](#term-ar). See investigations from the research
> agency _**[Forensic Architecture](https://forensic-architecture.org/)**_,
> where these tools are utilized alongside other methods to explore
> multiple dimensions in a given case.
>
> These are basic definitions of the main processes and tools involved
> with 3D methods and analysis:
>
>- **Remote sensing** - is the process of gathering information about
> an object of phenomenon is done without physical contact with the
> object.
>
>- **3D modelling** - is the process of developing a 3D representation
> of an object or place using specialized software
>
>- **Photogrammetry** - is the process of extracting 3D information
> from photographs.
>
>- **Lidar -** is a method for calculating ranges by targeting an
> object with a laser and measuring the time for the reflected light
> to return to the receiver.
>
>- **Virtual Reality (VR)** - is the creation of a simulated
> environment.
>
>- **Augmented reality (AR)** - is a way of enhancing an environment by
> superimposing computer-generated information on top of the real
> world.
>
> At Forensic Architecture, 3D modelling
> (physical or digital), VR and photogrammetry methods are used to
> better examine the landscape from images, camera positions, how events
> unfolded relative to one another. Understanding the perspectives of
> any given source is useful to establish what was within the frame and
> what remains outside – giving “investigators a fuller picture of how
> much is known, or not, about the incident they are studying”
> ([Forensic Architecture](https://forensic-architecture.org/methodology/3d-modelling).)
>
> 3D modelling was used as part of their investigation on
> “[Environmental Racism in Death Alley, Louisiana](https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/environmental-racism-in-death-alley-louisiana)”
> (1718-Ongoing) in partnership with RISE St. James (see images below).
> Here they reconstructed an interactive 3D representation of a
> ‘typical’ sugarcane plantation in the lower Mississippi River. Based
> from a composite of several plantations and cartographic evidence,
> along with historical archives, property surveys, interview
> transcripts and other data, the 3D representations helped communicate
> the scales and the logics of these plantations which “was at once
> industrial facility, farm, prison, death camp, and luxury estate”.
>
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f12.png)
>
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f11.png)
> *Source: [Forensic Architecture](https://forensic-architecture.org/),
> “[Environmental Racism in Death Alley,
> Louisiana](https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/environmental-racism-in-death-alley-louisiana)”:
> https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/environmental-racism-in-death-alley-louisiana*
>
> Virtual Reality (VR) is used in their investigation into “[The Killing of Mark
> Duggan](https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/the-killing-of-mark-duggan)”
> (see image below.) As part of a civil claim against the UK’s
> Metropolitan Police, Forensic Architecture developed a VR environment
> that emulated the event as it unfolded to illustrate the various
> inconsistency in police testimonies.
>
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f13.png)
> *Source: [Forensic Architecture](https://forensic-architecture.org/),
> “The Killing Of Mark Duggan”: <https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/the-killing-of-mark-duggan>*
>
> Photogrammetry was used in their investigation into the “[Destruction
> and Return in Al-Araqib](https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/destruction-and-return-in-al-araqib)”
> (see figure x). Forensic Architecture collaborated with local
> families, Zochrot and PublicLab to collect evident on the history of
> the village of al-Araqib in the northern Naqab desert. Synthesizing
> aerial footage, archaeological survey, images taken from cameras
> suspended from kites, and photogrammetry, they launched a navigable
> digital platform that documents the expulsion, destruction, but also
> the ongoing life and resistance in the region.
>
> This platform aims to support a legal petition by the al-Tūri family
> of al-Araqib.
>
>
> ![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f14.png)
> *Source: [Forensic Architecture](https://forensic-architecture.org/),
> “Destruction and Return in al-Araqib”: <https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/destruction-and-return-in-al-araqib>*
>


In sum, new insights might be possible in a careful examination of
space. Social lives sprawl across all sorts of directions - what are we
missing in our fixation of the horizon?


### Missing data

While it may seem that we have thoroughly scoured the corners of our
world, many things remain unmapped, unrecorded and obscured. For
example, much of our oceans are still unexplored — while Google Maps
uses infra-red modelling to infer contour lines on the ocean floors, and
this is still only an approximation. See more about this in _**[*Here Be
Dragons. Finding the Blank Spaces in a Well-Mapped World*](https://www.vqronline.org/essays-articles/2017/01/here-be-dragons)**_ by [Lois Parshley.](https://www.vqronline.org/people/lois-parshley)

Writing about the wider world of missing data, Nigerian-American artist
and researcher [Mimi Ọnụọha](https://mimionuoha.com/) states that blank
spots often “exist in spaces that are otherwise data-saturated,” and
that a lack of data “typically correlates with issues affecting those
who are most vulnerable in that context” (see _**[*Missing Datasets*](https://mimionuoha.com/the-library-of-missing-datasets)**_ by Mimi
Onuoha. 2020.).

**What might our maps be missing and what can this tell us?**

The late British geographer [J.B. Harley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brian_Harley) was
particularly fixated on this question and wrote about what he called
“cartographic silence” in maps — where blank spots are not necessarily
the result of mistakes, ignorance, or technical issues, but rather part
of the map itself where “silence can reveal as much as it conceals” (see
more in “Cartographic Abstraction in Contemporary Art: Seeing with
Maps”, by Claire Reddleman - book published in 2017 by Routledge - also
available here: <https://www.clairereddleman.com/chapters-of-cartographic-abstraction-in-contemporary-art-seeing-with-maps>).
For instance, colonial maps of the Americas often erased Indigenous
locations and names as a way of showing that these lands were
“available” for settlement (see [Anita Lucchesi](https://www.annitalucchesi.com/) [*'Indians Don't Make Maps': Indigenous Cartographic Traditions and
Innovations*](https://doi.org/10.17953/aicrj.42.3.lucchesi), American
Indian Culture and Research Journal, 42(3), 2018; and  J. B. Harley,
[*Silences and secrecy: the hidden agenda of cartography in early modern
Europe*](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03085698808592639), Imago Mundi, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 57–76, 1988.

Likewise, in 2014, Brazilian geography scholar André Reyes Novaes argued
that Rio de Janeiro’s official maps mostly ignored the city’s informal
*favela* neighborhoods until the 1990s where this “silencing” was
indicative of the indifferent attitude of the political elites towards
favelas – the omission being a way of flattening the complexity and
humanity of life in these settlements (see A. R. Novaes, [*Favelas and
the divided city: mapping silences and calculations in Rio de Janeiro’s
journalistic cartography*](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14649365.2013.872285), in Social & Cultural Geography, vol. 15, no.
2, pp. 201–225, 2014.)

Mapping the unmapped is then a way of investigation, activism and
resistance. For example, formed in the mid-70s, _**[Unnayan](http://www.an-atlas.com/contents/unn_sen.html)**_ was a
collective of “radical planners” in Kolkata (formerly Calcutta, the
capital of India's West Bengal state) who mapped missing spaces as part
of their fight for dwelling rights for the working poor (see image
below). They sought to place on the map the various unauthorized
settlements that were labelled as vacant land on government issued maps.
With the community of dwellers, they created maps that made these
settlements visible, which also helped implement and document water
systems, drainage schemes and roadways. These maps became an important
part of gaining recognitions for housing rights at the national and
international levels (see Unnayan / Jai Sen: <http://www.an-atlas.com/contents/unn_sen.html>.)


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f15.png)
*Source: “An Atlas of Radical Cartography”: <http://www.an-atlas.com/contents/unn_sen.html>*

Different maps will have different information voids. For an
illustration of this, see Sterling Quinn’s work on _**[*Geographies of
Empty Spaces*](https://cartographicperspectives.org/index.php/journal/article/view/1591/1871)**_.
Through a detailed comparison of various paper and digital maps of
Washington in the United States, Quinn found varying patterns of missing
data, defined as areas where no map features appear (see image below).

In an investigation then, it is important to be aware of the biases of
any particular map and _**[triangulate data](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangulation_(social_science))**_
where possible.



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f16.png)
*Image: Sterling Quinn’s research on “empty spaces” in maps. Row above indicates the digital maps she compared, row below indicates the paper maps she used. Black shaded area represents areas where no map features appear. Source: <https://cartographicperspectives.org/index.php/journal/article/view/1591/1871>*

**If certain communities, activities, and landscapes are hidden from view, how can you tell what is swept under the rug?**

Some starting questions to ask include:

- **Whose maps does the investigation rely on, and what missing data might exist?** What features of a map might a mapping authority deem
unimportant or worth hiding?

- **Are certain parts of the map blurred, pixelated or only available in
low resolutions?** This is a common practice in satellite maps for
particularly strategic locations such as military airbases, refugee
camps, power plants, and important infrastructures. Examining the
selective obscuring of particular features of a map can be a useful
investigative tool - see [Federation of American Scientists](https://fas.org)’ investigation into how blurring of
satellite images can reveal the exact location of secret facilities:
[*Widespread Blurring of Satellite Images Reveals Secret Facilities*](https://fas.org/blogs/security/2018/12/widespread-blurring-of-satellite-images-reveals-secret-facilities/).
Also, see this crowdsourced Wikipedia entry [*List of satellite map images with missing or unclear data*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_satellite_map_images_with_missing_or_unclear_data).”

- **Are the maps intentionally outdated?** Some maps intentionally depict
an older time period or omit data within certain timeframes. For
example, see the [Associate Press’ investigation](https://web.archive.org/web/20210926124230/https://www.jacksonville.com/article/20110822/NEWS/801245757) into post-9/11 obfuscation in US maps (original link: <https://www.jacksonville.com/article/20110822/NEWS/801245757> /
archived with Waybac Machine [here.](https://web.archive.org/web/20210926124230/https://www.jacksonville.com/article/20110822/NEWS/801245757))

- **Might the map have vague or misleading labels or features?** This is a
common tactic to direct unwanted attention away from a certain area.
For instance, military and intelligence assets are often omitted
from UK maps, or labelled as “farms” and ambiguous entities such as
“depot,” “works,” or “disused airfield” (see, as an example the
article of C. Perkins and M. Dodge, _**[*Satellite imagery and the spectacle of secret spaces*](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016718509000517)**_, in *Geoforum*, vol. 40, no. 4, pp.546–560, 2009.)

Sometimes maps omit important data due to technical and design decisions
too. For instance, “cartographic generalization” is a common process in
digital geographic systems such as Geographic Information System (GIS).
Cartographic generalization controls how much detail is represented in a
map where trade-offs are necessary (where this is shaped by human and/or
automated decisions). This can result in problems such as the
[Baltimore phenomenon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartographic_generalization),
the tendency for a city to be omitted from maps due to space constraints
while smaller cities are included on the same map because there is enough space to display them (also see more details in this useful _**[*General
Cartography* syllabus](https://www.eiilmuniversity.co.in/downloads/General_Cartography.pdf)**_ from Eiilm University, page 44 for Baltimore
Phenomenon - syllabus archived with Wayback Machine [here](https://web.archive.org/web/20210926125211/https://www.eiilmuniversity.co.in/downloads/General_Cartography.pdf)).
The city of Baltimore in the United States is often omitted on maps of certain scales due to the presence of larger cities in close proximity of it, despite the fact that smaller cities often appear at these same scales. For further reading on
this topic see: _**[*How to Map Nothing*](https://placesjournal.org/article/how-to-map-nothing/)**_ (Shannon Mattern, March 2021) on Placesjournal.org.

With so many ways to obscure or hide data, it is important not to assume
that any one map is definitive. It might be important to consult a
variety of sources and to not write-off paper or locally created maps.
At the same time, **it is important to note that not everything can be
or should be captured. There are reasons why communities and actors may
wish to remain off the maps and other radars. When investigating it is
important to acknowledge data refusal and incorporate ways to truly gain
consent.** For more about this see research by:

- E. Tuck and K. W. Yang - [*Unbecoming claims: Pedagogies of refusal in qualitative research*](https://www.sjsu.edu/people/marcos.pizarro/courses/240/s0/275TuckYang.pdf), Qualitative Inquiry, vol. 20, no. 6, pp.811–818, 2014.

- A. Simpson - [*On ethnographic refusal: Indigeneity,‘voice’and colonial citizenship*](https://pages.ucsd.edu/~rfrank/class_web/ES-270/SimpsonJunctures9.pdf), Junctures: The Journal for Thematic Dialogue, no. 9, 2007.


```cik-tip
```
> **Tips:**
>
> While filling out missing data is a valuable exercise, it is always important to ask:
>
>- Am I working with a community in a mapping project?
>
>- Does the community I am mapping wish to be counted or exposed in a
> certain way?
>
>- Do they have a say in whether they wish to be involved, the
> questions being asked, and throughout the mapping process?
>
> These questions are essential if the community at hand is marginalized
> or precarious in some way. There are ways to preserve anonymity and
> confidentiality however location data is especially revealing: see
> [controversies from the Muslim Pro App](https://nowthisnews.com/news/people-are-deleting-the-muslim-pro-prayer-app-after-learning-data-was-shared-with-us-military)
> and [phone location data mapping](https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/12/10/business/location-data-privacy-apps.html)
> as some examples.
>


### Mapping communities with careful crowdsourcing


It is important to consider whether you are mapping your own community
or a community you are not a part of. What might you be missing as an
outsider? Always remember to situate yourself in the mapping exercise,
properly contextualize your maps, and carefully consider the localities
you are studying. Ask yourself:

- Whose maps are you relying on?

- Whose knowledge and interpretation are you using?

- Who are you including and excluding?

If you are not a part of the community at hand, consider partnering with
community members in your investigation, including at the research
design stage (for further reading on this topic, see: Annita Lucchesi’s
[work](https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/full/10.3138/cart-2019-0022) on
Indigenous Mapping principles in *Spatial Data and (De)Colonization:
Incorporating Indigenous Data Sovereignty Principles into Cartographic
Research* including [her talk](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GQXc9eGp6So) on this
topic; and ideas on Co-produced Ethnography in the book [*Decolonizing Ethnography: Undocumented Immigrants and New Directions in Social Science*](https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv11smmv5) by Carolina Alonso Bejarano, Lucía López Juárez, Mirian A.
Mijangos García and Daniel M. Goldstein, 2019 Published by: Duke
University Press (reviewed [here.](https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/lsereviewofbooks/2020/04/28/book-review-decolonizing-ethnography-undocumented-immigrants-and-new-directions-in-social-science-by-carolina-alonso-bejarano-lucia-lopez-juarez-mirian-a-mijangos-garcia-and-daniel-m-goldstein/))

_**[Crowdsourcing](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/articles/it-takes-a-crowd)**_
is a popular way of involving a community in the mapmaking process, but
this method does not mean the work is necessarily being co-created, or
that participants have equal footing in the project (see more about
Collaborative Cartography _**[here.](https://gistbok.ucgis.org/bok-topics/collaborative-cartography)**_)

The critical thinking surrounding commercial maps should be extended to
other types of open-source projects too. Some questions to think about
include:

- Who is defining the questions and parameters being investigated?

- On whose terms are the information being collected and analyzed on?
Is there room for substantive feedback and change?

- What input is actually allowed from the participants?

- Who is the arbiter of what gets mapped and what does not?

- Who ultimately owns the data, maps and knowledge produced? Who are
the cited authors and who benefits?

- Is the crowdsourced data from a representative sample of the
community?

- What languages are the maps available in and will this allow for
different members of a community to contribute?

As authors of the book _**[*Indigenous Data Sovereignty*](https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n2140/pdf/book.pdf)**_,
Tahu Kukutai and John Taylor argue, data ownership, including control
over technical adjustments, content, and infrastructure, matters
immensely, particularly when indigenous and minority communities are
involved (see more in T. J. McGurk and S. Caquard, *To what extent can online mapping be decolonial? A journey throughout Indigenous cartography in Canada*, The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien, vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 49–64, 2020, doi: <https://doi.org/10.1111/cag.12602> , full pdf
[here](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339414491_To_what_extent_can_online_mapping_be_decolonial_A_journey_throughout_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada) )

Maps faces, including the thousands of [fake company listings](https://www.newscientist.com/article/2127150-thousands-of-fake-companies-added-to-google-maps-every-month/) present in its services, the map's underlying [commercial orientations](https://www.diggitmagazine.com/articles/google-maps-commercially-oriented-representation-world) and many [biases](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339414491_To_what_extent_can_online_mapping_be_decolonial_A_journey_throughout_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada) of their framework despite attempts at making mapping “open”.


```cik-note
```
>
> **Note:**
>
> While working with open-source and collaborative frameworks is generally great, it is important to remember
> that crowdsourcing data is not inherently good and that there are many elements to pay attention to (also see A. Basiri, M. Haklay, G. Foody,
> and P. Mooney, [*Crowdsourced geospatial data quality: challenges and future directions*](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13658816.2019.1593422), International Journal of Geographical Information Science, vol. 33, no. 8, pp. 1588–1593, Aug. 2019.) Critical reflection and acknowledging your own limitations while assessing when it’s important to think of _**[collaborating](https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/how/collaboration.html)**_ with other experts are crucial processes in investigations.
>


### Mapping infrastructures and authorities

It is vital to carefully think through what mapping infrastructure underpins
investigative projects. While many freely available mapping
infrastructures allow extensive customization, we need to pay attention
to what is not customizable.

Maps are tethered to certain places and jurisdictions. Both paper and digital maps often have layers of
intersecting authority. For instance, Google’s headquarters are in the
US, but it is a global company, subject to local legislation and
pressure from various communities, where maps can look different
depending on where you are accessing them from. One example is Kashmir,
a contested area of land straddling the borders of China, India, and
Pakistan. When viewing Kashmir on Google Maps from Pakistan, the borders
are disjointed and appear disputed. However, when viewing from India, a
single, smooth line carves out Kashmir as a part of India. Mapped
borders and territories are less concrete than any printed black lines
would suggest.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f17.1.png)

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f17.2.png)
*Image: The Kashmir borders on Google Maps which appear disputed when viewing from Pakistan (left). When viewed from India however, the solid,continuous border implies that Kashmir is part of India (right) 2020. Source: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rZpc2_xnSfc>*

Maps are also subjected to certain laws. For instance, many of
the largest platforms providing digital maps are based in the US
including Google Maps, Microsoft Bing Maps, and Apple Maps – and as
such, they are all subject to a law called the Kyl-Bingaman Amendment
(KBA) which was put in force in the 1997. The KBA essentially ensures
that US companies are only allowed to disseminate low resolution
satellite imagery over Israel-occupied territories (with several exceptions).
Here, the importance of who the mapping authorities are is made explicit.

```cik-note
```
>
> **Note:**
>
> It might be helpful to remember that restrictions can also be
> challenged and circumvented depending on the circumstance. See here
> for an example of a team of archaeologist who were successful in
> challenging elements of the [Kyl-Bingaman Amendment (KBA)](https://www.ox.ac.uk/news/arts-blog/oxford-archaeologists-win-access-restricted-satellite-images-israel-and-palestinian) and in reducing its restrictions.
>


For this reason, it is worth comparing various maps. See below for a
table of some popular web-based mapping services and examples of how
they differ.


||Origin|Type|Some notes on maps|
|--- |--- |--- |--- |
|OpenStreetMap (OSM)|UK|Non-Commercial|OSM is an open-source mapping project that has a large community of volunteer contributors and is the basis of many other mapping projects around the world. OSM is a non-profit entity sponsored by various universities and organizations. OSM does not track its users' activity. OSM allows and encourages their users to download its mapping databases, whereas commercial maps tend to limit data sharing through API funnels. OSM was made to be shared and built upon, so the core functionalities are intentionally basic.|
|Apple Maps|US|Commercial|Apple Maps is another popular mapping service that is pre-loaded on Apple devices. Apple Maps in China adheres to the Chinese government's data policy surrounding maps (e.g. using government-sanctioned names and territorial boundaries). Other mapping views include satellite and terrain views, 360 panoramic (Street View), “Flyover Views” and “City Tours” for certain places, among others.|
|Google Maps|US|Commercial|Google Maps is one of the most popular mapping services in the world. It supports over 54 languages and comes pre-loaded on many mobile devices. It tailors searches according to user histories and tracking networks, advertisers, and algorithmic ranking systems that are connected with Alphabet’s (Google’s parent company) larger suite of services. Different “user profiles” may prompt different mapping results. Google Maps is blocked in China, and therefore often lacks community contributions in that locality. Other mapping views include Google Earth (including satellite and terrain views), Rotation View (beta), 360 panoramic (Street View), Google Earth Virtual Reality (VR), and so forth.|
|Baidu Maps|China|Commercial|Due to China’s firewall, citizens have less access to other maps, thus locally made maps are often more detailed and contains more crowdsourced information. Baidu Maps is only available in Chinese and is commonly used in China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. Baidu Maps is blocked in India for “national security concerns”. Other mapping views include satellite views, 360 panoramic (Street View), and an “indoor view”.|
|QQ Tencent Map|China|Commercial|QQ Maps is another popular mapping service in China. The maps are available in Chinese and is particularly used in China, Taiwan and Hong Kong. Other mapping views include satellite imagery, 360 panoramic (Street View), and historical view.|
|Microsoft Bing|US|Commercial|Microsoft Bing is a popular mapping service that is supported in over 117 languages. Bing was previously banned in China, but has since been unblocked. Other mapping views include satellite, 360 panoramic (Street View), and venue maps (inside views of a location).|
|Yandex|Russia|Commercial|Yandex is a mapping service from Russia. It offers particularly detailed maps of Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Turkey, and Kazakhstan. It is available in English, Russian, Ukrainain, Kazakh, Belarusian, Bahasa Indonesia, and Tatar language. Other mapping views include satellite, 360 panoramic (Street View), and rotation view (mobile version).|
|[Native Land Maps](https://native-land.ca/) |Canada|Non-Commercial|Native Land Digital (Canadian nonprofit) provides a map of Indigenous territories, languages, and treaties. Comes with a guide on how to think critically about this particular map and beyond: https://native-land.ca/resources/teachers-guide/|
|Bhuvan|India|Government/Public|Bhuvan is a web-based utility that allows exploration of maps by the Indian Space Research Organisation. It is available in Hindi, English, Tamil, Telugu.|
|Qwant Maps (beta)|France|Commercial|Qwant Maps is launched by Qwant, a French search engine that positions itself as a privacy-respecting service that does not utilize user tracking or personalized search queries. Launched in 2019, Qwant Maps was a relative newcomer, but it builds on OSM databases. Qwant also launched Masq, an open-source technology that allows online services to offer personalized results from data securely stored on the user's device. Because Qwant is based in Europe, it adheres to European privacy laws including the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).|


Only a select few digital maps are included here but this might be a
good starting point to think about the peculiarities of any one map. Of
course, building your own map and using locally created maps are worth
considering where possible.

```cik-tip
```
>
> Through careful examinations of how maps are calibrated and crafted
> (e.g., the vertical & missing data) and who owns and creates maps
> (e.g., communities, commercial entities, or governments/jurisdictions,
> and in which languages) we can glean new insights and envision
> alternative representations of our messy, complex realities, in our
> investigations and beyond.
>


<br/>

## Maps and UnMaps

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/il/critical-maps-01-cik-illustration.png)


Maps and mapmaking can be used in countless ways — to inform, control,
resist or simply to better relate to our surroundings. This last section
is an exploration of some of the ways to use maps in an investigative
project. This list is non-exhaustive and overlapping, but it serves as a
starting point to explore what maps can do:

1. The Patterned Map
2. The Map of Reimagining
3. The Power Map
4. The Storytelling Map
5. The Real-Time Map of Protest


### The Patterned Map

**(Concerned with analysis)**

All maps contain information but some maps places patterns at the
forefront.

Some maps are static images that we use to navigate. Other maps might be
used more as a way of analysis, looking for patterns across space and
time. Maps can be compared, examined over time, and overlaid with data
in order to tease out trends, relationships, and patterns.

One example is Detroit Geographic Expedition’s map called _**[*Where Commuters Run Over Black Children on the Pointes-Downtown Track*](https://detroitography.com/2013/06/12/where-commuters-run-over-black-children-detroit-1968/)**_”
(see image below). This was part of a series of investigative projects
led by Gwendolyn Warren, which used a mixture of qualitative data,
ethnographic interviews, and personal testimonies to document the
disparities between the Black and White neighborhoods in the area. In
this particular map, Warren and a team of researchers set out to fill a
data void surrounding children’s death that were caused by car
accidents. By mapping data that was either nonexistent or not publicly
accessible, they demonstrated that accidents were clustered around
commuter traffic from wealthy White suburbs to Black neighborhoods. This
highlighted that there was a pattern with Black children’s deaths and
that each accident was not an isolated incident, but instead “indicative
that the spatial and racial injustice of the city leads to the bodily
harm of the most vulnerable members of its lower classes” (source: kanarinka, [*The Detroit Geographic Expedition and Institute: A Case Study in Civic Mapping*](https://civic.mit.edu/index.html%3Fp=220.html)” – MIT Center for Civic Media, accessed Dec. 14, 2020.)



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f18.png)
*Image: From Field Notes III: Geography of the Children of Detroit by the Detroit Geographical Expedition and Institute, 1971. Source:
<https://civic.mit.edu/index.html%3Fp=220.html>*

Another example is John Snow and Charles Cheffins’ [mapping of cholera outbreak](https://www.rcseng.ac.uk/library-and-publications/library/blog/mapping-disease-john-snow-and-cholera/)s in 19th century London (see image below). In the 1850s, cholera was
believed to be an airborne disease however John Snow, a physician at the
time, had a hunch it was transmitted through water. To investigate this,
he decided to map the cases of cholera in a particularly bad outbreak in
Soho, London. Using mortality report data from the Registrar General
Office in London and interviews with local residents, John Snow and
collaborators mapped out how deaths were clustered in the neighborhood.
The maps pointed to a link between cholera cases and a contaminated
water pump in which nearby residents were drinking from. These
documentations were eventually convincing enough to persuade the local
council to take action and for the medical profession at large to take
the waterborne theory of cholera seriously (see more in _**[this article](https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/mar/15/john-snow-cholera-map**_) by The Guardian.)



![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f19.png)
*Image: Thematic map showing incidence of cholera as black bars (each bar represents a death from cholera), first shown at a meeting of the
London Epidemiological Society in 1854. Source: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1854_Broad_Street_cholera_outbreak>*

```cik-note
```
>
> **Note:**
>
> Remember to pay attention to the nuances of the particular case you
> are investigating when trying to discern patterns over space and time.
> See the ETI Kit on “[Using Maps to See Beyond the Obvious](https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/how/maps.html)” by
> Alison Kiling for examples of thematic mapping as well as datasets and base maps that are available.


### The Map of Reimagining

**(Concerned with mapping alternatives and counter-mapping)**

All maps imagine but some maps are intended to resist the status quo.

Since maps are constructed, they can be deconstructed and reconstructed.
Some maps serve to reimagine borders, territories, and places. Maps can
also rectify what was not mapped in the past, map an alternative future,
or imagine the present along different terms.

For instance, the [*Detroit Geographic Expedition*](https://detroitography.com/tag/detroit-geographic-expedition-institute/)
placed particular emphasis on “oughtness maps”, a map of how things are
and of how things ought to (should) be. In their first publication - [*Field Notes I*](https://antipodeonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/dgei_fieldnotes-i.pdf) - they remind us that “afterall, it is not the function of geographers
to merely map the earth, but to change it” (see more about the [Detroit
Geographic Expedition](https://detroitography.com/tag/detroit-geographic-expedition-institute/)
“Field Notes” [here](https://antipodeonline.org/2017/02/23/dgei-field-notes/).)

Various Indigenous mapping projects in particular have sought to counter
mainstream mapping narratives. This is especially due to how the history
of cartography has contributed to the dispossession of Indigenous
Peoples’ territories and languages. One example is the _**[Native Land Digital project](https://native-land.ca/)**_, which uses community
contributions to map out Indigenous lands, Settler-Indigenous relations, histories, treaties, and more (see image below.)

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f20.png)
*Image: Native Land (Canadian Nonprofit) a living map of Indigenous territories, languages, and treaties. Source: <https://native-land.ca/>*

Similarly, many borders and territories are arbitrarily carved out,
especially during times of colonialisation. The [*Secret Countries*](https://chimurengachronic.co.za/secret-countries/)” section
of the cartographic issue of the _**[Chimurenga Chronical](https://chimurengachronic.co.za/)**_ envisions an alternative mapping of the continent of Africa. Inspired by Archille Mbembe’s [*At the Edge of World: Boundaries, Territoriality, and Sovereignty in Africa*](https://muse.jhu.edu/article/26186), it moves beyond nation state representations of Africa, and instead offers other arrangements and depictions of Africa where territories are tied together through shared history, trade, and other flows.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f21.png)
*Image source: <https://chimurengachronic.co.za/secret-countries/>*


### The Power Map

**(Concerned with mapping relationships)**

All maps are relational but some maps places networks at the center.

Power mapping or relational mapping is also a way of analysis, but it is
more specific and often used by organizers, activists, and investigators
to identify who has what type of power in a community. These maps help
locate relevant parties, including allies and decision-makers. Power
maps can look different according to their purpose.

For example, the _**[Anti-Eviction Mapping Project](https://antievictionmap.com/)**_ produced a community power map of
Oakland in the United States, “a city that has historically faced disinvestment”. It presents a map of who and what the community values,
as well as what threatens their place during this time of city development.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f22.jpg)
*Source: Anti-Eviction project: <https://antievictionmap.com/>*

```cik-tip
```
>
> Read more about this topic in:
>
> - [Power Mapping and Analysis](https://commonslibrary.org/guide-power-mapping-and-analysis/) -
> The Commons (commonslibrary.org)
>
> - [Power mapping](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_mapping), (Wikipedia)



### The Storytelling Map

**(Concerned with communicating)**

All maps have stories, but some maps have storytelling as its main
focus.

Various strands of investigative projects have emphasized the need to
humanize data, especially in our data-saturated world (read more about
data saturation in Danah Boyd and K. Crawford, _**[*Critical Questions for Big Data*](https://people.cs.kuleuven.be/~bettina.berendt/teaching/ViennaDH15/boyd_crawford_2012.pdf)**_, Information, Communication & Society, pp. 662–679, May 2012 - full
article [here](https://people.cs.kuleuven.be/~bettina.berendt/teaching/ViennaDH15/boyd_crawford_2012.pdf).)
This extends to cartographic data. Storytelling through maps can help
embed the realities of data, communicate difficult to understand
concepts, and assist in conveying the scale or severity of an issue.

For instance, _**[*Views from the North Atlas*](http://viewsfromthenorth.ca/index.html)**_ a joint project by the
Inuit training program _**[Nunavut Sivuniksavut](https://www.nunavutsivuniksavut.ca/about-us)**_ and [Carleton University](https://carleton.ca/) in Ottawa, presents an exploration of Inuit histories in Canada (see image below). Here, interviews between
Nunavut Sivuniksavut students and elders from their home communities are
situated alongside photographs, archival materials, and cartographic
features in order to foster a living map of Inuit culture.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f23.png)
*Image source: <http://viewsfromthenorth.ca/>*

In *Narratives of Displacement and Resistance* the [Anti-Eviction
Mapping Project](http://www.antievictionmappingproject.net/narratives.html)
presents incidents of eviction along with oral histories in several US
cities (see image below.) Each red dot represents a case of eviction that
occurred, and each turquoise dot has an interview accompaniment.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f24.png)
*Image “Narratives of Displacement and Resistance” by the Anti-Eviction Mapping Project. Source:
<http://www.antievictionmappingproject.net/narratives.html>*

Likewise, geographer and artist Levi Westerveld’s _**[*Those Who Did Not Cross*](https://visionscarto.net/those-who-did-not-cross)**_ maps those who
lost their lives at sea while trying to reach European shores from
2005 to 2015 (see image below). Here, the destination countries are flattened
into a black coastline or into what one might see looking onto the
horizon. Lines of text attempt to contextualize the tragedies that
occurred.


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f25.jpg)
*Image: Levi Westerveld’s map of Those Who Did Not Cross (2005–15). Source: <https://visionscarto.net/those-who-did-not-cross>*

And, [MintPress News Desk](https://www.mintpressnews.com/)’s representationVisualizingPalestine's infographic of the Israel government’s ID system, informed by Helga
Tawil-Souri’s work, disentangles one aspect of how this larger system
controls, stratifies and controls various Palestinian communities (see
image below and Helga Tawil-Souri’s article [*Uneven Borders, Coloured (Im)mobilities: ID Cards in Palestine/Israel*](https://doi.org/10.1215/01642472-1259488), Social Text (2011) 29 (2(107)): 67–97.)


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f26.png)
*Image: MintPress News Desk's VInfograph by VisualizingPalestine.org: visualisation of the Complex ID Matrix informed by Helga Tawil-Souri. Source:
 <https://www.mintpressnews.com/infograph-segregation-invisualizingpalestine.org/visual/identity-crisis-the-israeli-id-system/191928/>*>.


### The Real-Time Map of Protest

**(Concerned with mapping the now)**

All maps are entangled in a certain time period but some maps are meant
to be ephemeral.

Resistance is threaded through all of the above – including resisting
information voids, resisting through narratives, and resisting borders.
The above maps are also acts of resistance in themselves with how they
reveal the multitude of injustices that may not be visible in our daily
lives. Another type of map that takes resistance at center stage is the
real-time maps of protests.

Protest maps are maps that accompany protests and conflicts in real-time
where it is important to share information, document what is happening,
and organize logistics of a movement as it unfolds. Some examples
include the _**[Hong Kong Live Map](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HKmap.live)**_ platform that accompanied
the waves of protests in Hong Kong during 2019-2020 (see image below).
Here, clashes between protestors and police were documented through
crowdsourced data and faded away as soon as the incident ended.


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f27.jpg)
*Image: Hong Kong Live Map that mapped in real time the 2019-2020 city-wide protests in Hong Kong. Source:
<https://twitter.com/hkmaplive/status/1265414473181003776/photo/1>*


```cik-example
```
>
> See also the _**[ETI Kit’s OSINT piece about ScanMap](https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/what/osint-ocean.html)**_,
> a real-time map that emerged during the Black Lives Matter protests in
> the summer of 2020 (see image below). Built by activist group [Radio12](https://radio12.org/) with
> Open Source Intelligence (OSINT) techniques, [ScanMap](https://scanmap.mobi/) is a
> free and accessible tool that maps hotspots of protest, police
> location and key points of blockades in various cities.
>
>![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/critical-maps/f28.png)
> *Screenshot from: <https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/what/osint-ocean.html>*
>


These maps were made to be used at a specific time and meant to be
fleeting. As such, maps do not have to be permanent, and these serve as
a reminder about how map design can be more intentional.

For instance, digital maps often extract data from users and having a
centralized storage of personal data might pose a risk in terms of data
leaks or in terms of government requests where law enforcement may gain
access to data that is collected. If you are designing your own maps, be
considerate of what data (or partial data) you store and whether you are
putting anyone (including yourself) in danger.

<br/>

## Stay critical

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/il/critical-maps-02-cik-illustration.png)


> “We use maps to find our way in the world, to locate ourselves in relation to others, to measure distance and record change. Maps are inherently contextual, which can make them seem old-fashioned in a culture that values immediacy, one that operates through image and spectacle. The image is a mask, a face, a front, an arrow. The map is its opposite, not an index of the world but a way of relating to it.” (Taiyon J. Coleman, 2017, [*Poems as Maps: An Introduction*](https://placesjournal.org/series/poems-as-maps/), in <https://placesjournal.org/>).

Maps can reveal and hide. They can reinforce but also reimagine. As we
incorporate, build and consult maps in our research and investigations, we need to remember to
keep a careful, critical eye on how these maps are summarizing space and time.

What visions of the world will your maps hold?

<br/>

<hr class="thick">

_Published October 2021_

<br/>


## Resources

#### Articles and Studies


- _[Cartographic Abstraction in Contemporary Art: Seeing with Maps](https://www.clairereddleman.com/chapters-of-cartographic-abstraction-in-contemporary-art-seeing-with-maps)_, book by Claire Reddleman, 2017 Routledge.

- _[CORE](https://core.ac.uk/)_ - a large collection of open access research papers.

- _[Critical Questions for Big Data](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1369118X.2012.678878)_, by Danah Boyd and K. Crawford in 'Information, Communication & Society', pp. 662–679, May 2012.

- _[Crowdsourced geospatial data quality: challenges and future directions](https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10074777/1/IJGIS%20Editorial%2004032019ABMH.pdf)_ by A. Basiri, M. Haklay, G. Foody, and P. Mooney, International Journal
of Geographical Information Science, vol. 33, no. 8, pp. 1588–1593, Aug. 2019, doi: 10.1080/13658816.2019.1593422.

- _[Decolonizing the Map: Recentering Indigenous Mappings](https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/full/10.3138/cart.53.3.intro)_, by R. Rose-Redwood, N. Blu Barnd, A. H. Lucchesi, S. Dias, and W. Patrick, in Cartographica vol. 55, no. 3, pp. 151–162, Sep. 2020, doi: 10.3138/cart.53.3.intro.

- _[Delivery Platform Algorithms Don’t Work Without Drivers’ Deep Local Knowledge](https://slate.com/technology/2020/12/gojek-grab-indonesia-delivery-platforms-algorithms.html)_, by R. Qadri, Slate Magazine, Dec. 28, 2020 (accessed Jan. 13, 2021.)

- _[Digital occupation: Gaza's high-tech enclosure](https://web.archive.org/web/20210726200358/https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/journals/jps/v41i2/f_0025106_20500.pdf)_, by Tawil-Souri, H. in Journal of Palestine Studies, 41(2), 27-43, 2012.

- _[Favelas and the divided city: mapping silences and calculations in Rio de Janeiro’s journalistic cartography](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263556301_Favelas_and_the_divided_city_Mapping_silences_and_calculations_in_Rio_de_Janeiro%27s_journalistic_cartography)_, by A. R. Novaes, Social & Cultural Geography, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 201–225, 2014.

- _['From My Point of View': documentary](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/films/from-my-point-of-view-film)_, including [these interviews](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/interviews/hagit-diy-mapping-and-reclaiming) about aerial mapping.

- _[General Cartography syllabus](https://www.eiilmuniversity.co.in/downloads/General_Cartography.pdf)_, from Eiilm University (archived with Wayback Machine [here](https://web.archive.org/web/20210926125211/https://www.eiilmuniversity.co.in/downloads/General_Cartography.pdf).)

- _[Here Be Dragons](https://www.vqronline.org/essays-articles/2017/01/here-be-dragons)_, VQR Online, accessed Jan. 14, 2021.

- _[How to Map Nothing](https://placesjournal.org/article/how-to-map-nothing/)_, by Shannon Mattern, March 202, on
placesjournal.org.

- _[Indigenous  data sovereignty: Toward an agenda](https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n2140/pdf/book.pdf)_, by T. Kukutai and J. Taylor, Anu Press, 2016. (archived on Wayback Machine [here.](https://web.archive.org/web/20211026175552/https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n2140/pdf/book.pdf))

- _[Indians Don't Make Maps’: Indigenous Cartographic Traditions and Innovations](https://www.academia.edu/43560408/_Indians_Dont_Make_Maps_Indigenous_Cartographic_Traditions_and_Innovations)_ by A. Lucchesi, American Indian Culture and Research
Journal, vol. 42, no. 3, pp. 11–26.

- _[Maps show – and hide – key information about Ukraine war](https://theconversation.com/maps-show-and-hide-key-information-about-ukraine-war-179069)_ by Timothy Barney, The Conversation, 21 March 2022. (Archived with Wayback Machine [here](https://web.archive.org/web/20220322161249/https://theconversation.com/maps-show-and-hide-key-information-about-ukraine-war-179069))

- _[Mikel Maron: Crowdsourcing satellite imagery to document deforestation](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/articles/logging-roads-mikel-maron/)_, in Exposing the Invisible, Tactical Tech.

- _[Missing Datasets](https://mimionuoha.com/the-library-of-missing-datasets)_, by Mimi Onuoha. 2020.

- _[On ethnographic refusal: Indigeneity, ‘voice’ and colonial citizenship](https://pages.ucsd.edu/~rfrank/class_web/ES-270/SimpsonJunctures9.pdf)_, by A. Simpson in 'Junctures: The Journal for Thematic Dialogue', no. 9, 2007 (archived with Wayback Machine [here.](https://web.archive.org/web/20211031102633/https://pages.ucsd.edu/~rfrank/class_web/ES-270/SimpsonJunctures9.pdf))

- _[The Detroit Geographic Expedition and Institute: A Case Study in Civic Mapping](https://civic.mit.edu/index.html%3Fp=220.html)_, by Catherine D’Ignazio (Kanarinka.com).

- _[Secure the volume: Vertical geopolitics and the depth of power](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271581542_Secure_the_volume_Vertical_geopolitics_and_the_depth_of_power)_, by S. Elden in Political Geography, vol. 34, pp. 35–51, 2013.

- _[Silences and secrecy: the hidden agenda of cartography in early modern Europe](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03085698808592639)_, by J. B. Harley, Imago mundi, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 57–76, 1988.

- _[Starting Satellite Investigations](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/guides/starting-satellite-investigations/)_, in Exposing the Invisible, Tactical Tech.

- _[Super-tall, super-skinny, super-expensive: the ‘pencil towers’ of New York’s super-rich](https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2019/feb/05/super-tall-super-skinny-super-expensive-the-pencil-towers-of-new-yorks-super-rich)_, by O. Wainwright, in The Guardian, Feb. 05, 2019.

- _[The Highs and Lows of Asserting Tribal Airspace Sovereignty](https://web.archive.org/web/20210726202040/https://repository.asu.edu/attachments/216876/content/Knight_asu_0010N_18894.pdf)_, by Shelly Lynn Knight, 2019.

- _[The politics of verticality. Introduction to The Politics of Verticality](https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/article_801jsp/)_, by E.
Weizman in OpenDemocracy.net, April 2002.

- _[To what extent can online mapping be decolonial? A journey throughout Indigenous cartography in Canada](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339414491_To_what_extent_can_online_mapping_be_decolonial_A_journey_throughout_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada_Indigenous_cartography_in_Canada)_ by T. J. McGurk and S. Caquard in 'The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien', vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 49–64, 2020, doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/cag.12602.




## Glossary

### term-3dmodelling

**3D modelling** - the process of developing a 3D representation of an
object or place using specialized software.

### term-ar

**Augmented reality (AR)** - a way of enhancing an environment by
superimposing computer-generated information on top of the real world.

### term-critical-cartography

**Critical Cartography** and **Critical Geography** - more generally is
a wide field of practices grounded in critical theory and the starting
point that maps are not objective and instead, reflects and perpetuate
relations of power. See: [Antipode Online](https://antipodeonline.org/) and [The Occupied Times – Critical
Cartography](https://theoccupiedtimes.org/?p=13771).

### term-decolonial-mapping

**Decolonial and Postcolonial mapping** - seeks to resist maps and
map-making legacies that stem from settler colonialism and imperial
projects. **Indigenous mapping** in particular seeks to recenter
Indigenous mappings and cartographies as spatial practices of
world-making; a practice that has a long history. See: [Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization: Vol 55, No 3 (utpjournals.press)](https://www.utpjournals.press/toc/cart/55/3) and [The Decolonial Atlas (wordpress.com)](https://decolonialatlas.wordpress.com/).

### term-lidar

**Lidar** - a method for calculating ranges by targeting an object with
a laser and measuring the time for the reflected light to return to the
receiver.

### term-oughtness-maps

**Oughtness Maps** - a term that emerged from the Detroit Geographic
Expedition which refers to maps that present “how things ought to be.”

### term-photogrammetry

**Photogrammetry** - the process of extracting 3D information from photographs.

### term-radical-cartography

**Radical cartography** - the practice of mapmaking that aims to subvert
the status quo and promote social change. Radical referring to grasping
at the root of the problem. See: [View of The Search for a Radical Cartography / Cartographic Perspectives](https://cartographicperspectives.org/index.php/journal/article/view/6/14#:~:text=The%20editors%2C%20however%2C%20go%20on,to%20actively%20promote%20social%20change.&text=Some%20of%20the%20maps%20are,variety%20of%20approaches%20to%20mapmaking.) and [An Atlas of Radical Cartography](http://www.an-atlas.com/)

### term-remote-sensing

**Remote sensing** - the process of gathering information about an object of phenomenon is done without physical contact with the object.

### term-vertical

**Vertical** - refers to the right angles to a horizontal plane; the direction or alignment of being upwards and downwards.

### term-volumetric

**Volumetric** - refers to thinking in terms of measures of volume of a
city (rather than of area), for instance the density or compactness of
activities in a given urban space. Read more: [Volumetric Sovereignty (societyandspace.org).](https://www.societyandspace.org/forums/volumetric-sovereignty)

### term-vr

**Virtual Reality (VR)** - the creation of a simulated environment.
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Navigating Sensitive Stories: A Guide to Ethical Engagement with Vulnerable Sources
===============================

By Stavros Malichudis

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/il/illustration-vulnerable-sources-main.png)


```cik-in-short
```
**In short:** Drawing on over a decade of investigative reporting experience, this practical guide by Stavros Malichudis in collaboration with Tactical Tech offers concrete steps in working with vulnerable sources.

---

## Introduction

How should journalists and researchers approach sources who have experienced trauma? How can they do so in a way that avoids unintentionally re-traumatising them? And how can we build trust, and make sure that individuals willing to share important information with us will not be targeted or face other negative consequences?

As an investigative reporter and editor for over a decade, I have worked closely with vulnerable sources in the field. I have spoken to [shipwreck survivors](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/films/pylos-shipwreck/); victims of violent state collective expulsions known as ‘pushbacks’; exploited [land workers](https://wearesolomon.com/mag/focus-area/migration/greek-strawberries-made-in-bangladesh/) and [call center agents](https://insidestory.gr/article/teleperformance-part2); unaccompanied minors who lived on the street or had been detained for up to 48 hours in secret ‘prisons,’ which were passenger ferries running between Italy and Greece; residents who lost their neighbors and their houses in a massive fire outside of Athens in the summer of 2018; locals whose loved ones were among [the 64 people who died in 2020 in a care home in Crete, Greece](https://www.investigate-europe.eu/en/posts/death-in-paradise-how-64-care-home-residents-died-in-crete); mothers in Greece and Germany whose sons [were killed by neo-Nazis](https://wearesolomon.com/mag/format/interview/their-sons-were-murdered-by-neo-nazis-now-they-vow-to-keep-their-memory-alive/); and administration and industry insiders who became whistleblowers.

This guide draws on these experiences to address ethical concerns that span the entire investigative project lifestyle, from initial design, to implementation, and finally to engaging audiences in the post-publication phase.


## Pre-reporting phase

### 1. Understand which sources are vulnerable

First, we need to have a clear understanding of the many diverse roles and identities that a ‘vulnerable source’ can belong to. A ‘vulnerable source’ could be, but is not limited to:

* An undocumented worker or a person on the move (migrant);
* A person who lost a loved one in an accident;
* A person who lost their property in a natural disaster; and
* A whistleblower on the brink of exposing misconduct or mistreatment within a company, a state agency, or an international organisation

Focusing on vulnerable voices should be the standard practice for *any* story striving to illuminate underreported issues and hold power accountable. Vulnerable sources can enlighten perspectives, for both the researcher and the reader, by offering the opportunity to perceive a situation as thoroughly and holistically as possible.

Including vulnerable sources in your research isn't just about doing the right thing; it's also about better research. While many stories highlight the usual prominent voices, tapping into those often overlooked can uncover fresh, underexplored perspectives. It's a powerful way to make your work more inclusive and insightful.

But for these individuals, speaking to a researcher carries significant risk. Depending on their status, they could face job loss, retaliation or community rejection, risk of arrest, and more.

Given the stakes, researchers serving the public interest with their investigations have an ethical duty to protect the sources of their work. The rest of this guide presents a curated list of best practices to help researchers incorporate the voices of vulnerable sources while minimising potential harm.

### 2. Do your research before approaching vulnerable sources

Before establishing contact with an individual or a community, it’s vital that some time is dedicated to pre-reporting. Ask yourself: What do you know about the person you are willing to approach or the community they are part of? Do you have a basic understanding of the community’s manners or customs? A basic overview of the individual’s story?

Dedicate some time to answer these questions and gather some basic, initial information. This can be done through searching online, making phone calls to experts, and asking colleagues.

A good first impression can save both parties from awkward situations. It can also help create a first layer of trust; people appreciate it when others have made the effort to learn things about them.

#### For communities:

Research the communities you are approaching, and treat them with respect by adhering to their customs. Demonstrate that you have done your due diligence and establish that this is a source-researcher relationship you are interested in building.

For instance, in some cultures men do not greet women with a handshake. In other cultures, for example, refusing to accept a drink that someone offers can be seen as lack of respect. These cultural circumstances can be difficult to navigate at times, as you balance your specific risk assessment and safety concerns with cultural practices in certain contexts (such as the fear of being poisoned by a potential adversary). Above all, try not to take cultural differences for granted — it’s vital to adapt to and enter each context with as much care and awareness as possible.

#### For individuals:

Again, research as much as possible beforehand. Demonstrate that you took the time to learn about whoever you are approaching. If that person carries with them a traumatic experience, thorough research before meeting them can help avoid re-traumatisation. A journalist's due diligence involves gathering as much context as possible to understand what is at stake for the source.

When I first worked on the [story of the care home](https://www.investigate-europe.eu/en/posts/death-in-paradise-how-64-care-home-residents-died-in-crete) in Crete, Greece, where 64 people died in a single year, some of the relatives who lost loved ones had already talked to the media. Having read their interviews, when I met with them I was able to ask more targeted questions to get the most insightful information. Having an idea of the chain of events, I also had the opportunity to treat traumatic memories with more care.

Doing as much research as possible can help you show sources that you took the time to learn them, stick to the facts when it comes to traumatic experiences, and respectfully acknowledge the pain people share. While a long-standing saying in journalism says that there are no stupid questions, perhaps the only stupid question that could be posed to a vulnerable source is one that will unnecessarily make them re-experience their trauma.

 

### 3. Plan your initial approach

Often, the best way to approach sources who might be hesitant to talk to you is through people who can vouch for your integrity, your credibility, and your ethical standards.

These could be mutual acquaintances, like an NGO that you have worked with before. Or, perhaps you know members of the same community who can introduce you to your potential source.

If the individual has a public social media profile, you can search for possible common connections. This allows for a smoother approach, as well as a better informed pre-reporting phase.


### 4. Recognise the power balance between you and your sources

Researchers should clearly understand the power dynamics at play when working with vulnerable sources. A vulnerable source inherently holds less power than a reporter. This imbalance can stem from a source's level of wealth or income, legal status, social standing, age, race, ethnicity, nationality, religion, or other factors.

Researchers need to take power imbalances in mind when designing an investigation. They must have in mind the insecure position of their source, their ethical duty to protect them and treat them with care, and the possible challenges that may arise during the research phase, and beyond.



## Research phase

### 1. Explain yourself

The success of a research project involving vulnerable sources often comes down to how you explain yourself, the process you follow, the outcomes of the research project, and any possible implications such as short or long-term risks posed to your sources in this case.

Vulnerable sources are entitled to clear explanations of the above, as early on as possible in the process.

Researchers should keep in mind that their sources may not be familiar with their research or its possible implications. Researchers need to provide this context themselves and explain each aspect of a research project as needed.

As early as possible in the process, researchers must seek agreement with sources on these major aspects:

#### The nature and level of involvement:

What is it exactly that you want to gain from your sources? Will this require a single interview or a series of meetings? Should they also expect phone calls from you? Do you expect them to be available for a set period of time, e.g., for the duration of a trial? Is your editor, a photographer, or a fact-checker going to call them later on?

#### The duration and timing of the engagement:

Very often, vulnerable sources contribute to time-sensitive research projects. For instance, when investigating how governments and organisations used funds provided by the EU for the accommodation of asylum seekers, I met a family who stayed in one of these housing units in Athens. The NGO responsible for them was receiving millions of euros from the EU, but photos the family captured showed that conditions inside their apartment were horrific. They wanted to expose the conditions, but it was best for them to do so after they had left the apartment, due to a fear of being identified.

Similar conditions may occur when a company whistleblower wishes to denounce internal processes. It may be better to publish any material only *after vulnerable sources* have left these environments. Time of publication should be agreed upon early on to avoid frustration on both sides. No surprises!

#### The format:

When you interview a vulnerable source, will you quote them in full, or will you rephrase or paraphrase their words? Before recording a source’s voice or likeness through photos or videos, always obtain informed consent, taking care to explain how this material will be used. When recording their voice, for example, state from the outset whether it is strictly for your own note-taking or for inclusion in the publication of the story.

#### Publication details:

Where will the story be published, and in what context? In what languages and formats will the outcome be available?

#### Fact-checking:

Information provided by vulnerable sources, in fact by *any* sources, must be corroborated independently. This can be tiring or disappointing for people who share their trauma with you. Consider the [Pylos shipwreck](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/films/pylos-shipwreck/), the largest in the Mediterranean in recent years, which claimed the lives of over 600 men, women, and children. Some survivors said they had stayed in the water for an hour before a Greek Coast Guard vessel came to their rescue. Others said it was closer to half an hour. While probing such details can feel insensitive given the immense suffering, these discrepancies still require meticulous fact-checking.

For sources unfamiliar with journalistic processes, it's crucial to explain that independent verification is paramount to upholding the integrity and validity of any investigation. This transparent communication also means being clear that some information, no matter how personally significant, may not be included in the final report if it cannot be independently verified.

Clarifying these aspects in advance can help you manage expectations, maintain trust, and mitigate frustrations.

 

### 2. Let sources know they are also in control

All human relations come with power dynamics. Usually, journalists have power over sources, as they ultimately decide what to include in a piece or not. But with sources, especially vulnerable sources, it’s important to know that they are also in control of their own story.

One of the first steps I follow when working with vulnerable sources is to make clear to them that they have the option to decide if specific information shared with me is on the record, off the record, or on background. In other words, if they don’t want to answer a specific question, they don’t have to.

They should also have the opportunity to pause an interview, if at any time they feel the need to do so. As researchers, we should show patience. Give them the time and space they need, and don’t pressure them. Resist the urge to fill pauses, or periods of silence.

If a discussion touches on tragic events, don’t just keep pushing for answers. Take a break when the person seems distressed or simply wants to stop.


```cik-note
```
>**Some terms to explain to your sources:**
>
>* **On the record:** Unless explicitly agreed otherwise, any conversation with a journalist is considered ‘on the record’. This means everything a source says can be quoted directly, attributed by name, and published. It's the highest level of transparency and accountability, allowing readers to see precisely who said what.
>
>* **Off the record:** When something is ‘off the record,’ the journalist agrees that the information provided cannot be published or attributed to the source. Journalists and sources must mutually agree that a conversation is ‘off the record’ before any information is shared.
>
>* **On background:** When a conversation is ‘on background,’ journalists can publish and quote the information provided by a source, but cannot identify the source by name or otherwise attribute that information to the source using other identifiable information. Researchers can describe the source as accurately as possible, for example as ‘a source familiar with the incident’ or ‘an employee on the field’, without revealing the source’s identity.
>


### 3. Give it time

In 2019, during a months-long investigative project, I was tracking unaccompanied migrant children in Greece. These kids faced unimaginable challenges; some had experienced homelessness, others had been detained in police stations for months.

As I worked to build trust and gather information, my editor offered a brilliant piece of advice: “just hang out with them.” No recording, no note-taking, just hanging out. Do what they do. Spend an afternoon with them, then another, without the pressure of collecting material for the written piece I had in mind.

This approach was illuminating. It allowed me to visualise and truly understand the humanity of my potential sources first. It fostered a more natural, less rushed relationship, letting things unfold organically. Investigations, especially with vulnerable sources, demand time.

That fellowship taught me a crucial lesson about building trust. When sources sense genuine care for their story, they often become your strongest advocates, introducing you to others and vouching for your credibility. It's a powerful ripple effect that extends far beyond any single interview.

### 4. Explain the possible implications

Letting vulnerable sources know they’re also in control is related to your responsibility to inform them about the possible implications that may arise for them by speaking to you.

For instance, a few years back I worked on an investigation exposing labor exploitation and racism in a call-center giant in Greece. One of the main sources, an ex-employee of the company, insisted on speaking on the record. Although it’s always better for the validity of an investigation that sources speak on the record, it was my duty back then to inform the person that, given the practices in that specific sector, speaking publicly against the industry’s major company could mean that employers in his sector would no longer want him at their company.

The source took a few days to think on this. He decided to still do it, as he saw his professional future in an entirely unrelated field. It was his choice in the end, but it was my responsibility to provide context that he wasn’t necessarily aware of.

In other cases, when a source shares potentially identifying or incriminating information, it is imperative that a researcher might ask: “Are you sure you want to share this?” - This reminds the source of the risks and empowers them to decide what to share and withhold.


### 5. Don’t create expectations

“Why should I speak to you?” - This is a question I often get from residents of refugee camps across Greece. - “You do your story, what will I get?”

Vulnerable sources might be in dire need of financial aid or of state documents that could make their life move forward, to name just two examples. You might be asking them to talk to you at a time when they feel their life is falling apart.

Researchers should make sure not to exploit the hopes of vulnerable sources. Simply put, don’t offer things in return for information, and don’t promise what you cannot deliver.

It is imperative to explain that the actual impact of your story, especially for the individual’s own story, might be limited. But you should also explain that your research will contribute to holding power to account, and may contribute to a wider impact beyond this one story.

While you may not be in a position to help them get certain documents, you can help them in other ways, like to let them know which NGOs offer legal support or to tell them what you know about labor inspections.


### 6. Ensure physical safety when meeting in person

Are sources talking to you at risk if someone sees them with a reporter or a researcher? Would source protection be compromised?

Physical safety during meetings demands careful planning. Be sure to consider:

* **Awareness of Surroundings:** Ensure you are not being followed. Have a good understanding of the area you are in.

* **Discreet Meeting Locations:** Avoid places where you could be easily seen. If meeting at a café, choose a seat with a direct view of the entrance. Avoid outdoor seating where you might be visible to individuals you cannot see.

* **Location Privacy:** If using taxis or ride-sharing apps to meet a vulnerable source, avoid mentioning or inputting the exact meeting address directly into the app. You can ride to a walking distance address, and get on foot from there.

* **Mobile Device Protocols:** When meeting sensitive sources, consider not carrying your mobile phone or disabling GPS to protect their safety, even if you perceive no personal risk.

* **Inform your source:** Share with your source the different steps you take to ensure their protection. This can help build trust among the two parties, but it can also lead to valuable feedback on the specifics.

 

### 7. Ensure digital safety

In-person meetings are not the only form of communication in need of security. Securing digital communication is also paramount. This includes:

* **Password Protection:** Keep your phone password-protected.

* **Auto-Delete Messages:** Utilise features that automatically delete messages. Most applications (like Signal, WhatsApp) have this feature.

* **Encrypted Communication:** Avoid standard phone lines and SMS. Prioritise encrypted messaging apps like Signal, which is favored by researchers and academics due to its strong security.

* **End-to-End Encryption:** Opt for services designed with privacy, where end-to-end encryption is standard, ensuring only you and your source can read messages.


```cik-note
```
>**Digital Security Resources**
>
>For fundamentals on digital security, physical security and wellbeing as well as risk assessment, you can start with articles and guides such as:
>
>* Security in a Box guides and tutorials: [https://securityinabox.org/](https://securityinabox.org/) 
>* Safety First guide: [https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/safety.html](https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/safety.html) 
>* Risk Assessment guide: [https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/articles/risk-assessment-mindset](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/articles/risk-assessment-mindset) 
>* Holistic Security manual: [https://holistic-security.tacticaltech.org/](https://holistic-security.tacticaltech.org/) 
>

### 8. Handle documents securely

For sensitive investigations, physical transfer of documents can sometimes be the safest method, such as through mail or direct delivery. Physical transfer doesn’t leave metadata. Edits can’t be tracked. This was reportedly how Edward Snowden provided documents to reporters, according to ["Snowden's Box: Trust in the Age of Surveillance"](https://www.versobooks.com/products/852-snowden-s-box?srsltid=AfmBOop4rkUd1yEAj2yNWs2yL5PTqlrs3MMKtHk7bmUuARbO0H0-Ckhi) by Jessica Bruder and Dale Maharidge, two experienced journalists who worked behind the scenes of the Snowden story. As the summary of the book notes, "The biggest national security leak of the digital era was launched via a remarkably analog network, the US Postal Service."

If a source provides you with a document, you have to make sure that you properly anonymise it in case you wish to publish it together with your investigation or share it with others outside your fully trusted team. Make sure you really anonymise it. Don’t just cover content with blacked out text boxes that can be removed from the file! Image edits with specific tools can be tracked, as can metadata of the files, so one needs to very carefully work on this to ensure full source protection.

 

```cik-note
```
>**Metadata** refers to information that describes the properties of a file, be it an image, a document, a sound recording, a map, etc. For example the contents of an image are the visible elements in it, while the date when the image was taken, the location and device information constitute its metadata. In communications – when sending a message or a file - metadata includes details about who sent it, when, where from, and to whom, among others. See more here: [https://ssd.eff.org/module/why-metadata-matters](https://ssd.eff.org/module/why-metadata-matters "https\://ssd.eff.org/module/why-metadata-matters").
>

Of course, file and data anonymisation has its drawbacks. Often it means altering evidence, so you will need to make sure you safely preserve original, unaltered versions of files for any possible situations that might arise, including, for example, court procedures.    

In 2022, after months of investigation, Greece's National Transparency Authority (NTA) released a redacted report addressing allegations of illegal pushbacks of asylum seekers. The report's conclusion: no such pushbacks had occurred. However, researchers quickly discovered a critical flaw: basic digital design tools were all that was needed to remove the blacked-out sections intended to protect the anonymity of the report's sources, thereby compromising the identities of the individuals who had informed the research.


```cik-tip
```
> See more tips and examples about data anonymisation in these articles:
>
>* “How Data Journalists Can Use Anonymization to Protect Privacy”, GIJN: [https://gijn.org/stories/how-data-journalists-can-use-anonymization-to-protect-privacy/](https://gijn.org/stories/how-data-journalists-can-use-anonymization-to-protect-privacy/)
>
>* “Privacy and data leaks: How to decide what to report”: [https://datajournalism.com/read/longreads/privacy-and-data-leaks](https://datajournalism.com/read/longreads/privacy-and-data-leaks)
>
>* “Why does The New York Times use anonymous sources?”, The New York Times, [https://www.nytimes.com/article/why-new-york-times-anonymous-sources.html](https://www.nytimes.com/article/why-new-york-times-anonymous-sources.html)
>
>* “Here are 12 principles journalists should follow to make sure they’re protecting their sources”, NiemanLab: [https://www.niemanlab.org/2019/01/here-are-12-principles-journalists-should-follow-to-make-sure-theyre-protecting-their-sources/](https://www.niemanlab.org/2019/01/here-are-12-principles-journalists-should-follow-to-make-sure-theyre-protecting-their-sources/)
>
>* “Investigative Journalism: How to Develop and Manage your Sources”, Al Jazeera Journalism Review: [https://institute.aljazeera.net/en/ajr/article/investigative-journalism-how-develop-and-manage-your-sources](https://institute.aljazeera.net/en/ajr/article/investigative-journalism-how-develop-and-manage-your-sources)
>
>* “Media Defense Guide for Investigative Journalists”, Media Defence: [https://gijn.org/stories/legal-help-for-journalists/](https://gijn.org/stories/legal-help-for-journalists/) (see more resources from Media Defense here: [https://www.mediadefence.org/resource-hub/](https://www.mediadefence.org/resource-hub/)
>
>* “The Perugia Principles for Journalists Working with Whistleblowers in the Digital Age”: [https://whistleblowingnetwork.org/WIN/media/pdfs/Journalism-Sources-INT-Blueprint-2018-Perugia-Principles-for-Journalists.pdf](https://whistleblowingnetwork.org/WIN/media/pdfs/Journalism-Sources-INT-Blueprint-2018-Perugia-Principles-for-Journalists.pdf) 
>


### 9. Show empathy in interviews

When interviewing vulnerable sources, traditional journalistic approaches — like quickly shifting between topics — can inadvertently inflict further harm. Instead, a more deliberate and structured interview approach is crucial.

Before a sensitive interview, it's vital to carefully plan the progression of your questions. The goal is to guide the source through difficult topics efficiently, ensuring they only have to recount painful experiences a single time. For example, a parent discussing the loss of a child should ideally only need to recall the specifics of their child's death once during the conversation.

### 10. Keep showing up

Vulnerable sources often go to extraordinary lengths to provide information for investigative projects. Yet, once the research phase concludes, contact frequently ceases. This abrupt disengagement can leave sources feeling exploited, deepening a sense that they were merely a means to an end for a story, especially when their personal realities remain unchanged.

Imagine a journalist who maintains daily contact with a source for weeks, only to vanish once the story is filed. This sudden absence can breed resentment and a profound sense of betrayal.

Consider the devastating [Mati fire](https://greekcitytimes.com/2025/03/13/mati-fire-guilty/), which claimed 104 lives in the outskirts of Athens in the summer of 2018. Both national and international media swarmed the area. Some reporters and crews stayed and covered the tragedy for up to three months. However, as new events unfolded in Greece and elsewhere, the journalistic gaze shifted, and many moved on, never to return.

My former colleague, Tasos Telloglou of Inside Story, chose a different path. He continued to visit Mati long after the initial media frenzy subsided. A year later, when we began working together on follow-up stories about the fire's aftermath, I - despite being new to the community - was granted immediate access and full trust. They didn’t know me; this was solely because I was collaborating with him. Tasos had earned that trust by consistently making the drive to Mati when no one else did.

His dedication was an illuminating example of how genuine care for a community's story and its ongoing realities, in stark contrast to extractive "parachute journalism," can build enduring trust and the whole different set of investigative possibilities this can bring.


## Post-publication phase

Researchers and investigative reporters tend to jump from project to project. But for the vulnerable sources that contributed to an investigation, their everyday lives continue.

Even reporters who carefully follow specific steps during the pre-reporting and the reporting phase of investigative projects may overlook the importance of the post-publication phase.

It is also worth keeping in mind that while veteran researchers might not feel like the days following publication are special, sources who are unfamiliar with the investigative process may feel differently. They can feel pressure, might think they have been exposed, or even regret having talked to someone. After publishing a story, keep the following steps in mind.

### 1. Share the story

Is the story finally out? Send it to your sources. Don’t let them find it via social media, or hear about it from other acquaintances. Even worse, don’t let them find out the story has been published only days later. Thank them once more for their contribution to the investigation and explain to them the story’s significance.

### 2. Ask for feedback

Don’t just send your sources the story and leave it at that. Ask them what they think of it. While you may not be in a position to make major changes after publication, it’s important to learn how they viewed their contribution to the story. Are their concerns properly framed in it? Do they feel that your portrayal of their reality was just?

### 3. Remain accessible

Journalists and researchers often disappear after publication, which can make vulnerable sources hesitant to trust not just them, but all journalists in the future. Be reachable to your sources, follow up on their wellbeing, and do not vanish. Working with people on the move in Greece for several years now, I often have sources of stories asking me why other journalists stopped replying to messages after they had opened their houses to them, had coffee with them, or shared childhood photos with them. Sources who have experienced these ‘parachute journalists’, will find it more difficult to trust researchers in the future and will feel that they were taken advantage of or used.

<hr class="thick">

#### About the author

**Stavros Malichudis** is a reporter and editor. He has worked for the Agence France-Presse and inside story, and has participated in cross-border investigations with Lighthouse Reports and Investigate Europe. He’s member of Reporters United. His reports have been published in European media. He was shortlisted for the European Press Prize ‘21 and won the IJ4EU Impact Award ‘22. In 2019 he was selected as a fellow for BIRN's Balkan Fellowship for Journalistic Excellence (BFJE). He has been trained in data journalism at Columbia University in New York on a fellowship.

<hr class="thick">

*Published in June 2025*

Navigating Sensitive Stories: A Guide to Ethical Engagement with Vulnerable Sources
===============================

By Stavros Malichudis

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/il/illustration-vulnerable-sources-main.png)


```cik-in-short
```
**In short:** Drawing on over a decade of investigative reporting experience, this practical guide by Stavros Malichudis in collaboration with Tactical Tech offers concrete steps in working with vulnerable sources.

---

## Introduction

How should journalists and researchers approach sources who have experienced trauma? How can they do so in a way that avoids unintentionally re-traumatising them? And how can we build trust, and make sure that individuals willing to share important information with us will not be targeted or face other negative consequences?

As an investigative reporter and editor for over a decade, I have worked closely with vulnerable sources in the field. I have spoken to [shipwreck survivors](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/films/pylos-shipwreck/); victims of violent state collective expulsions known as ‘pushbacks’; exploited [land workers](https://wearesolomon.com/mag/focus-area/migration/greek-strawberries-made-in-bangladesh/) and [call center agents](https://insidestory.gr/article/teleperformance-part2); unaccompanied minors who lived on the street or had been detained for up to 48 hours in secret ‘prisons,’ which were passenger ferries running between Italy and Greece; residents who lost their neighbors and their houses in a massive fire outside of Athens in the summer of 2018; locals whose loved ones were among [the 64 people who died in 2020 in a care home in Crete, Greece](https://www.investigate-europe.eu/en/posts/death-in-paradise-how-64-care-home-residents-died-in-crete); mothers in Greece and Germany whose sons [were killed by neo-Nazis](https://wearesolomon.com/mag/format/interview/their-sons-were-murdered-by-neo-nazis-now-they-vow-to-keep-their-memory-alive/); and administration and industry insiders who became whistleblowers.

This guide draws on these experiences to address ethical concerns that span the entire investigative project lifestyle, from initial design, to implementation, and finally to engaging audiences in the post-publication phase.


## Pre-reporting phase

### 1. Understand which sources are vulnerable

First, we need to have a clear understanding of the many diverse roles and identities that a ‘vulnerable source’ can belong to. A ‘vulnerable source’ could be, but is not limited to:

* An undocumented worker or a person on the move (migrant);
* A person who lost a loved one in an accident;
* A person who lost their property in a natural disaster; and
* A whistleblower on the brink of exposing misconduct or mistreatment within a company, a state agency, or an international organisation

Focusing on vulnerable voices should be the standard practice for *any* story striving to illuminate underreported issues and hold power accountable. Vulnerable sources can enlighten perspectives, for both the researcher and the reader, by offering the opportunity to perceive a situation as thoroughly and holistically as possible.

Including vulnerable sources in your research isn't just about doing the right thing; it's also about better research. While many stories highlight the usual prominent voices, tapping into those often overlooked can uncover fresh, underexplored perspectives. It's a powerful way to make your work more inclusive and insightful.

But for these individuals, speaking to a researcher carries significant risk. Depending on their status, they could face job loss, retaliation or community rejection, risk of arrest, and more.

Given the stakes, researchers serving the public interest with their investigations have an ethical duty to protect the sources of their work. The rest of this guide presents a curated list of best practices to help researchers incorporate the voices of vulnerable sources while minimising potential harm.

### 2. Do your research before approaching vulnerable sources

Before establishing contact with an individual or a community, it’s vital that some time is dedicated to pre-reporting. Ask yourself: What do you know about the person you are willing to approach or the community they are part of? Do you have a basic understanding of the community’s manners or customs? A basic overview of the individual’s story?

Dedicate some time to answer these questions and gather some basic, initial information. This can be done through searching online, making phone calls to experts, and asking colleagues.

A good first impression can save both parties from awkward situations. It can also help create a first layer of trust; people appreciate it when others have made the effort to learn things about them.

#### For communities:

Research the communities you are approaching, and treat them with respect by adhering to their customs. Demonstrate that you have done your due diligence and establish that this is a source-researcher relationship you are interested in building.

For instance, in some cultures men do not greet women with a handshake. In other cultures, for example, refusing to accept a drink that someone offers can be seen as lack of respect. These cultural circumstances can be difficult to navigate at times, as you balance your specific risk assessment and safety concerns with cultural practices in certain contexts (such as the fear of being poisoned by a potential adversary). Above all, try not to take cultural differences for granted — it’s vital to adapt to and enter each context with as much care and awareness as possible.

#### For individuals:

Again, research as much as possible beforehand. Demonstrate that you took the time to learn about whoever you are approaching. If that person carries with them a traumatic experience, thorough research before meeting them can help avoid re-traumatisation. A journalist's due diligence involves gathering as much context as possible to understand what is at stake for the source.

When I first worked on the [story of the care home](https://www.investigate-europe.eu/en/posts/death-in-paradise-how-64-care-home-residents-died-in-crete) in Crete, Greece, where 64 people died in a single year, some of the relatives who lost loved ones had already talked to the media. Having read their interviews, when I met with them I was able to ask more targeted questions to get the most insightful information. Having an idea of the chain of events, I also had the opportunity to treat traumatic memories with more care.

Doing as much research as possible can help you show sources that you took the time to learn them, stick to the facts when it comes to traumatic experiences, and respectfully acknowledge the pain people share. While a long-standing saying in journalism says that there are no stupid questions, perhaps the only stupid question that could be posed to a vulnerable source is one that will unnecessarily make them re-experience their trauma.

 

### 3. Plan your initial approach

Often, the best way to approach sources who might be hesitant to talk to you is through people who can vouch for your integrity, your credibility, and your ethical standards.

These could be mutual acquaintances, like an NGO that you have worked with before. Or, perhaps you know members of the same community who can introduce you to your potential source.

If the individual has a public social media profile, you can search for possible common connections. This allows for a smoother approach, as well as a better informed pre-reporting phase.


### 4. Recognise the power balance between you and your sources

Researchers should clearly understand the power dynamics at play when working with vulnerable sources. A vulnerable source inherently holds less power than a reporter. This imbalance can stem from a source's level of wealth or income, legal status, social standing, age, race, ethnicity, nationality, religion, or other factors.

Researchers need to take power imbalances in mind when designing an investigation. They must have in mind the insecure position of their source, their ethical duty to protect them and treat them with care, and the possible challenges that may arise during the research phase, and beyond.



## Research phase

### 1. Explain yourself

The success of a research project involving vulnerable sources often comes down to how you explain yourself, the process you follow, the outcomes of the research project, and any possible implications such as short or long-term risks posed to your sources in this case.

Vulnerable sources are entitled to clear explanations of the above, as early on as possible in the process.

Researchers should keep in mind that their sources may not be familiar with their research or its possible implications. Researchers need to provide this context themselves and explain each aspect of a research project as needed.

As early as possible in the process, researchers must seek agreement with sources on these major aspects:

#### The nature and level of involvement:

What is it exactly that you want to gain from your sources? Will this require a single interview or a series of meetings? Should they also expect phone calls from you? Do you expect them to be available for a set period of time, e.g., for the duration of a trial? Is your editor, a photographer, or a fact-checker going to call them later on?

#### The duration and timing of the engagement:

Very often, vulnerable sources contribute to time-sensitive research projects. For instance, when investigating how governments and organisations used funds provided by the EU for the accommodation of asylum seekers, I met a family who stayed in one of these housing units in Athens. The NGO responsible for them was receiving millions of euros from the EU, but photos the family captured showed that conditions inside their apartment were horrific. They wanted to expose the conditions, but it was best for them to do so after they had left the apartment, due to a fear of being identified.

Similar conditions may occur when a company whistleblower wishes to denounce internal processes. It may be better to publish any material only *after vulnerable sources* have left these environments. Time of publication should be agreed upon early on to avoid frustration on both sides. No surprises!

#### The format:

When you interview a vulnerable source, will you quote them in full, or will you rephrase or paraphrase their words? Before recording a source’s voice or likeness through photos or videos, always obtain informed consent, taking care to explain how this material will be used. When recording their voice, for example, state from the outset whether it is strictly for your own note-taking or for inclusion in the publication of the story.

#### Publication details:

Where will the story be published, and in what context? In what languages and formats will the outcome be available?

#### Fact-checking:

Information provided by vulnerable sources, in fact by *any* sources, must be corroborated independently. This can be tiring or disappointing for people who share their trauma with you. Consider the [Pylos shipwreck](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/films/pylos-shipwreck/), the largest in the Mediterranean in recent years, which claimed the lives of over 600 men, women, and children. Some survivors said they had stayed in the water for an hour before a Greek Coast Guard vessel came to their rescue. Others said it was closer to half an hour. While probing such details can feel insensitive given the immense suffering, these discrepancies still require meticulous fact-checking.

For sources unfamiliar with journalistic processes, it's crucial to explain that independent verification is paramount to upholding the integrity and validity of any investigation. This transparent communication also means being clear that some information, no matter how personally significant, may not be included in the final report if it cannot be independently verified.

Clarifying these aspects in advance can help you manage expectations, maintain trust, and mitigate frustrations.

 

### 2. Let sources know they are also in control

All human relations come with power dynamics. Usually, journalists have power over sources, as they ultimately decide what to include in a piece or not. But with sources, especially vulnerable sources, it’s important to know that they are also in control of their own story.

One of the first steps I follow when working with vulnerable sources is to make clear to them that they have the option to decide if specific information shared with me is on the record, off the record, or on background. In other words, if they don’t want to answer a specific question, they don’t have to.

They should also have the opportunity to pause an interview, if at any time they feel the need to do so. As researchers, we should show patience. Give them the time and space they need, and don’t pressure them. Resist the urge to fill pauses, or periods of silence.

If a discussion touches on tragic events, don’t just keep pushing for answers. Take a break when the person seems distressed or simply wants to stop.


```cik-note
```
>**Some terms to explain to your sources:**
>
>* **On the record:** Unless explicitly agreed otherwise, any conversation with a journalist is considered ‘on the record’. This means everything a source says can be quoted directly, attributed by name, and published. It's the highest level of transparency and accountability, allowing readers to see precisely who said what.
>
>* **Off the record:** When something is ‘off the record,’ the journalist agrees that the information provided cannot be published or attributed to the source. Journalists and sources must mutually agree that a conversation is ‘off the record’ before any information is shared.
>
>* **On background:** When a conversation is ‘on background,’ journalists can publish and quote the information provided by a source, but cannot identify the source by name or otherwise attribute that information to the source using other identifiable information. Researchers can describe the source as accurately as possible, for example as ‘a source familiar with the incident’ or ‘an employee on the field’, without revealing the source’s identity.
>


### 3. Give it time

In 2019, during a months-long investigative project, I was tracking unaccompanied migrant children in Greece. These kids faced unimaginable challenges; some had experienced homelessness, others had been detained in police stations for months.

As I worked to build trust and gather information, my editor offered a brilliant piece of advice: “just hang out with them.” No recording, no note-taking, just hanging out. Do what they do. Spend an afternoon with them, then another, without the pressure of collecting material for the written piece I had in mind.

This approach was illuminating. It allowed me to visualise and truly understand the humanity of my potential sources first. It fostered a more natural, less rushed relationship, letting things unfold organically. Investigations, especially with vulnerable sources, demand time.

That fellowship taught me a crucial lesson about building trust. When sources sense genuine care for their story, they often become your strongest advocates, introducing you to others and vouching for your credibility. It's a powerful ripple effect that extends far beyond any single interview.

### 4. Explain the possible implications

Letting vulnerable sources know they’re also in control is related to your responsibility to inform them about the possible implications that may arise for them by speaking to you.

For instance, a few years back I worked on an investigation exposing labor exploitation and racism in a call-center giant in Greece. One of the main sources, an ex-employee of the company, insisted on speaking on the record. Although it’s always better for the validity of an investigation that sources speak on the record, it was my duty back then to inform the person that, given the practices in that specific sector, speaking publicly against the industry’s major company could mean that employers in his sector would no longer want him at their company.

The source took a few days to think on this. He decided to still do it, as he saw his professional future in an entirely unrelated field. It was his choice in the end, but it was my responsibility to provide context that he wasn’t necessarily aware of.

In other cases, when a source shares potentially identifying or incriminating information, it is imperative that a researcher might ask: “Are you sure you want to share this?” - This reminds the source of the risks and empowers them to decide what to share and withhold.


### 5. Don’t create expectations

“Why should I speak to you?” - This is a question I often get from residents of refugee camps across Greece. - “You do your story, what will I get?”

Vulnerable sources might be in dire need of financial aid or of state documents that could make their life move forward, to name just two examples. You might be asking them to talk to you at a time when they feel their life is falling apart.

Researchers should make sure not to exploit the hopes of vulnerable sources. Simply put, don’t offer things in return for information, and don’t promise what you cannot deliver.

It is imperative to explain that the actual impact of your story, especially for the individual’s own story, might be limited. But you should also explain that your research will contribute to holding power to account, and may contribute to a wider impact beyond this one story.

While you may not be in a position to help them get certain documents, you can help them in other ways, like to let them know which NGOs offer legal support or to tell them what you know about labor inspections.


### 6. Ensure physical safety when meeting in person

Are sources talking to you at risk if someone sees them with a reporter or a researcher? Would source protection be compromised?

Physical safety during meetings demands careful planning. Be sure to consider:

* **Awareness of Surroundings:** Ensure you are not being followed. Have a good understanding of the area you are in.

* **Discreet Meeting Locations:** Avoid places where you could be easily seen. If meeting at a café, choose a seat with a direct view of the entrance. Avoid outdoor seating where you might be visible to individuals you cannot see.

* **Location Privacy:** If using taxis or ride-sharing apps to meet a vulnerable source, avoid mentioning or inputting the exact meeting address directly into the app. You can ride to a walking distance address, and get on foot from there.

* **Mobile Device Protocols:** When meeting sensitive sources, consider not carrying your mobile phone or disabling GPS to protect their safety, even if you perceive no personal risk.

* **Inform your source:** Share with your source the different steps you take to ensure their protection. This can help build trust among the two parties, but it can also lead to valuable feedback on the specifics.

 

### 7. Ensure digital safety

In-person meetings are not the only form of communication in need of security. Securing digital communication is also paramount. This includes:

* **Password Protection:** Keep your phone password-protected.

* **Auto-Delete Messages:** Utilise features that automatically delete messages. Most applications (like Signal, WhatsApp) have this feature.

* **Encrypted Communication:** Avoid standard phone lines and SMS. Prioritise encrypted messaging apps like Signal, which is favored by researchers and academics due to its strong security.

* **End-to-End Encryption:** Opt for services designed with privacy, where end-to-end encryption is standard, ensuring only you and your source can read messages.


```cik-note
```
>**Digital Security Resources**
>
>For fundamentals on digital security, physical security and wellbeing as well as risk assessment, you can start with articles and guides such as:
>
>* Security in a Box guides and tutorials: [https://securityinabox.org/](https://securityinabox.org/) 
>* Safety First guide: [https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/safety.html](https://kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/en/safety.html) 
>* Risk Assessment guide: [https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/articles/risk-assessment-mindset](https://exposingtheinvisible.org/en/articles/risk-assessment-mindset) 
>* Holistic Security manual: [https://holistic-security.tacticaltech.org/](https://holistic-security.tacticaltech.org/) 
>

### 8. Handle documents securely

For sensitive investigations, physical transfer of documents can sometimes be the safest method, such as through mail or direct delivery. Physical transfer doesn’t leave metadata. Edits can’t be tracked. This was reportedly how Edward Snowden provided documents to reporters, according to ["Snowden's Box: Trust in the Age of Surveillance"](https://www.versobooks.com/products/852-snowden-s-box?srsltid=AfmBOop4rkUd1yEAj2yNWs2yL5PTqlrs3MMKtHk7bmUuARbO0H0-Ckhi) by Jessica Bruder and Dale Maharidge, two experienced journalists who worked behind the scenes of the Snowden story. As the summary of the book notes, "The biggest national security leak of the digital era was launched via a remarkably analog network, the US Postal Service."

If a source provides you with a document, you have to make sure that you properly anonymise it in case you wish to publish it together with your investigation or share it with others outside your fully trusted team. Make sure you really anonymise it. Don’t just cover content with blacked out text boxes that can be removed from the file! Image edits with specific tools can be tracked, as can metadata of the files, so one needs to very carefully work on this to ensure full source protection.

 

```cik-note
```
>**Metadata** refers to information that describes the properties of a file, be it an image, a document, a sound recording, a map, etc. For example the contents of an image are the visible elements in it, while the date when the image was taken, the location and device information constitute its metadata. In communications – when sending a message or a file - metadata includes details about who sent it, when, where from, and to whom, among others. See more here: [https://ssd.eff.org/module/why-metadata-matters](https://ssd.eff.org/module/why-metadata-matters "https\://ssd.eff.org/module/why-metadata-matters").
>

Of course, file and data anonymisation has its drawbacks. Often it means altering evidence, so you will need to make sure you safely preserve original, unaltered versions of files for any possible situations that might arise, including, for example, court procedures.    

In 2022, after months of investigation, Greece's National Transparency Authority (NTA) released a redacted report addressing allegations of illegal pushbacks of asylum seekers. The report's conclusion: no such pushbacks had occurred. However, researchers quickly discovered a critical flaw: basic digital design tools were all that was needed to remove the blacked-out sections intended to protect the anonymity of the report's sources, thereby compromising the identities of the individuals who had informed the research.


```cik-tip
```
> See more tips and examples about data anonymisation in these articles:
>
>* “How Data Journalists Can Use Anonymization to Protect Privacy”, GIJN: [https://gijn.org/stories/how-data-journalists-can-use-anonymization-to-protect-privacy/](https://gijn.org/stories/how-data-journalists-can-use-anonymization-to-protect-privacy/)
>
>* “Privacy and data leaks: How to decide what to report”: [https://datajournalism.com/read/longreads/privacy-and-data-leaks](https://datajournalism.com/read/longreads/privacy-and-data-leaks)
>
>* “Why does The New York Times use anonymous sources?”, The New York Times, [https://www.nytimes.com/article/why-new-york-times-anonymous-sources.html](https://www.nytimes.com/article/why-new-york-times-anonymous-sources.html)
>
>* “Here are 12 principles journalists should follow to make sure they’re protecting their sources”, NiemanLab: [https://www.niemanlab.org/2019/01/here-are-12-principles-journalists-should-follow-to-make-sure-theyre-protecting-their-sources/](https://www.niemanlab.org/2019/01/here-are-12-principles-journalists-should-follow-to-make-sure-theyre-protecting-their-sources/)
>
>* “Investigative Journalism: How to Develop and Manage your Sources”, Al Jazeera Journalism Review: [https://institute.aljazeera.net/en/ajr/article/investigative-journalism-how-develop-and-manage-your-sources](https://institute.aljazeera.net/en/ajr/article/investigative-journalism-how-develop-and-manage-your-sources)
>
>* “Media Defense Guide for Investigative Journalists”, Media Defence: [https://gijn.org/stories/legal-help-for-journalists/](https://gijn.org/stories/legal-help-for-journalists/) (see more resources from Media Defense here: [https://www.mediadefence.org/resource-hub/](https://www.mediadefence.org/resource-hub/)
>
>* “The Perugia Principles for Journalists Working with Whistleblowers in the Digital Age”: [https://whistleblowingnetwork.org/WIN/media/pdfs/Journalism-Sources-INT-Blueprint-2018-Perugia-Principles-for-Journalists.pdf](https://whistleblowingnetwork.org/WIN/media/pdfs/Journalism-Sources-INT-Blueprint-2018-Perugia-Principles-for-Journalists.pdf) 
>


### 9. Show empathy in interviews

When interviewing vulnerable sources, traditional journalistic approaches — like quickly shifting between topics — can inadvertently inflict further harm. Instead, a more deliberate and structured interview approach is crucial.

Before a sensitive interview, it's vital to carefully plan the progression of your questions. The goal is to guide the source through difficult topics efficiently, ensuring they only have to recount painful experiences a single time. For example, a parent discussing the loss of a child should ideally only need to recall the specifics of their child's death once during the conversation.

### 10. Keep showing up

Vulnerable sources often go to extraordinary lengths to provide information for investigative projects. Yet, once the research phase concludes, contact frequently ceases. This abrupt disengagement can leave sources feeling exploited, deepening a sense that they were merely a means to an end for a story, especially when their personal realities remain unchanged.

Imagine a journalist who maintains daily contact with a source for weeks, only to vanish once the story is filed. This sudden absence can breed resentment and a profound sense of betrayal.

Consider the devastating [Mati fire](https://greekcitytimes.com/2025/03/13/mati-fire-guilty/), which claimed 104 lives in the outskirts of Athens in the summer of 2018. Both national and international media swarmed the area. Some reporters and crews stayed and covered the tragedy for up to three months. However, as new events unfolded in Greece and elsewhere, the journalistic gaze shifted, and many moved on, never to return.

My former colleague, Tasos Telloglou of Inside Story, chose a different path. He continued to visit Mati long after the initial media frenzy subsided. A year later, when we began working together on follow-up stories about the fire's aftermath, I - despite being new to the community - was granted immediate access and full trust. They didn’t know me; this was solely because I was collaborating with him. Tasos had earned that trust by consistently making the drive to Mati when no one else did.

His dedication was an illuminating example of how genuine care for a community's story and its ongoing realities, in stark contrast to extractive "parachute journalism," can build enduring trust and the whole different set of investigative possibilities this can bring.


## Post-publication phase

Researchers and investigative reporters tend to jump from project to project. But for the vulnerable sources that contributed to an investigation, their everyday lives continue.

Even reporters who carefully follow specific steps during the pre-reporting and the reporting phase of investigative projects may overlook the importance of the post-publication phase.

It is also worth keeping in mind that while veteran researchers might not feel like the days following publication are special, sources who are unfamiliar with the investigative process may feel differently. They can feel pressure, might think they have been exposed, or even regret having talked to someone. After publishing a story, keep the following steps in mind.

### 1. Share the story

Is the story finally out? Send it to your sources. Don’t let them find it via social media, or hear about it from other acquaintances. Even worse, don’t let them find out the story has been published only days later. Thank them once more for their contribution to the investigation and explain to them the story’s significance.

### 2. Ask for feedback

Don’t just send your sources the story and leave it at that. Ask them what they think of it. While you may not be in a position to make major changes after publication, it’s important to learn how they viewed their contribution to the story. Are their concerns properly framed in it? Do they feel that your portrayal of their reality was just?

### 3. Remain accessible

Journalists and researchers often disappear after publication, which can make vulnerable sources hesitant to trust not just them, but all journalists in the future. Be reachable to your sources, follow up on their wellbeing, and do not vanish. Working with people on the move in Greece for several years now, I often have sources of stories asking me why other journalists stopped replying to messages after they had opened their houses to them, had coffee with them, or shared childhood photos with them. Sources who have experienced these ‘parachute journalists’, will find it more difficult to trust researchers in the future and will feel that they were taken advantage of or used.

<hr class="thick">

#### About the author

**Stavros Malichudis** is a reporter and editor. He has worked for the Agence France-Presse and inside story, and has participated in cross-border investigations with Lighthouse Reports and Investigate Europe. He’s member of Reporters United. His reports have been published in European media. He was shortlisted for the European Press Prize ‘21 and won the IJ4EU Impact Award ‘22. In 2019 he was selected as a fellow for BIRN's Balkan Fellowship for Journalistic Excellence (BFJE). He has been trained in data journalism at Columbia University in New York on a fellowship.

<hr class="thick">

*Published in June 2025*

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# Supply Chain and Product Investigations

By Mario Rautner

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/il/Supply-Chains-cik-illustration.png)

```cik-in-short

```
**In Short:**
An introduction to supply chain investigations
including an overview of the main tools, techniques, data resources and
essential precautions to take. It focuses on the main actors, stages and
processes of a supply chain and includes a hypothetical step-by-step
investigation.

---

A supply chain is a set of steps that commodities (goods or raw
materials) undergo on their way to becoming products used by consumers
or industry. Stages of a supply chain can include places where products
are transformed – for instance, an electronics company where circuit
boards are made from transistors and copper lines – and where products
change hands through transport, such as the loading of circuit boards
onto a truck and their shipment to a computer manufacturing company.

Supply chain investigations focus on collecting evidence to link each
stage of a product’s journey, from the origin of the commodity (for example, the
_**[conflict metal Cassiterite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_resource)**_ used in the solder of laptops) to the final
product (the laptop itself), which can contain hundreds of different
components.

Supply chain investigations can be particularly impactful because they
have the potential to change the behaviours of entire industries when done
effectively, with thorough and reliable evidence. A _**[recent supply
chain investigation](https://www.cips.org/en/supply-management/news/2018/may/unilever-suspends-palm-oil-suppliers-over-deforestation-claims/)**_, for example, alleged that a large palm oil supplier to major food
companies such as Unilever, Nestle and Mars, was conducting massive
deforestation and not complying with sustainable palm oil policies. As a
direct result, Unilever stalled collaboration with the supplier pending
further verification. In another case, in 2018, the British supermarket
chain Iceland (Iceland Foods Ltd) _**[committed to removing palm oil](https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/apr/10/iceland-to-be-first-uk-supermarket-to-cut-palm-oil-from-own-brand-products)**_ from the manufacturing process of its own-brand products by the end of 2018.

Such investigations and findings can have an impact not only on the
reputation but also the financial status of the companies involved, in
particular when they reveal illegal or controversial activities.
Remember, something doesn’t have to be illegal for it to be considered
controversial. Even the use of rabbit fur, while legal, can be
problematic for a fashion brand these days.

In the most successful cases, this change impacts the supply chain all
the way back to the origin of the product, where it may prevent social
injustice, from poor working conditions and human rights abuses to land
grabbing and environmental destruction. Most supply chain investigations
are carried out by journalists or NGOs, but they can also be carried out
by determined independent investigators or people and communities
directly affected by an issue.


## Shining a light on where our products really come from


Everything around us is part of a supply chain: from the food we eat to
the clothes we wear and the devices we use. But the nature of supply
chains means we rarely know how commodities are produced or even where
they originate.

We might not always consider where our items come from, who harvested
their source materials and under what conditions, whether there was
exploitation or abuse at any point in the production process, or if
illicit acts were carried out along the way. However, these questions
might be brought to light when public controversies emerge about certain
products or brands.

Perhaps you live in an area where important materials are extracted or
produced. These materials may then enter the supply chain of a final
product through countless contracts, companies and manufacturing
processes, which are often opaque or not immediately visible or
accessible. Or, you might live near a forest that is being cleared and
want to know whether the companies carrying out the clearing are using
legal and ethical practices. The impact of such findings can be crucial
in saving the forest.

Of course, it is not always an investigator living in that area who will
expose the truth, but having someone familiar or close by to observe or
launch the quest for more information is a good start. Often a few
initial questions and some raw evidence can lead to wider investigations
by another group or organsation. Equipped with awareness of the risks
and safety considerations, and a good assessment of what is at stake,
you can also start this way.

Even if you are not physically present at a location where commodities
are produced or extracted, many supply chain investigations can be
carried out remotely. Indeed, in most cases, elements of a supply chain
are located far from the source - for example, wood processing and
furniture manufacturing can take place continents away from where the
forest was originally cleared.


```cik-tip
```
>**Tip: Helpful tools anyone can use to track products**
>
>**Barcodes:** Barcodes on consumer products can be used to identify the manufacturer, as well as additional
>information about them. Though barcodes are most familiar to us from a retail environment, they are also
>used in many other areas of business. In retail, the most commonly used barcodes are the _**[European
>Article Numbers / EAN](https://www.gs1.org/standards/barcodes/ean-upc)**_, which are usually 13 digits and
>used both
>within and outside of Europe; and the 12-digit Universal Product Code (UPC), which is very similar to the
>EAN, but contains a zero at the beginning to signify registration in the USA or Canada. The first three
>digits of an EAN indicates the name of the company that accepted the registration of the code (note that
>the location of the company may be, but not necessarily, the same as the location the product was
>manufactured). Companies that accept registration are members of the GS1 non-profit organisation, which
>maintains the global standard of barcodes. The [GS1 website](https://www.gs1.org/) has a _**[searchable database](http://gepir.gs1.org/index.php/search-by-gtin)**_ of many (but not all) barcodes. In some cases
>this is useful for obtaining information on who registered the product, and can also reveal details about
>a company's ownership structure.
>
>**Food hygiene labels:**
>EU rules regarding _**[food hygiene](https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/biosafety/food_hygiene_en)**_ cover
>all stages of the production, processing,
>distribution and sale of animal products intended for human consumption. This includes, for example, fish,
>meat and dairy products, but also non-food animal byproducts such as pet food. Every individual
>establishment or outlet (rather than the parent company) that puts such products on the market has to have
>a registration number that uniquely identifies it. The codes can be found on the product label and consist
>of a combination of letters and numbers within an oval. Have a look at a product at home to see how easy it
>is to spot the label. The EU has an online database of the codes, making it possible to identify the name
>of the company that put the product on the market. Since the regulation covers imports and any processes
>that take place in the EU, the database includes details of companies from over 80 countries. This comes in
>very useful if you’re investigating the chain of custody of a food product manufactured by a large consumer
>company on a contract, or a brand owned by a supermarket. In such cases, you can identify the actual
>producer rather than the brand owner.



## What makes a supply chain investigation


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/il/Supply-Chains-Breakdown-cik-illustration.png)

As you prepare for your investigation it’s important to have an informed idea
of what is possible to achieve, what is relevant and what may be out of
reach.

Supply chains are not always simple; they are often complicated networks
or webs of actors, processes and movements. While it takes thousands of
links in multiple supply chains to manufacture one laptop,
investigations usually focus on very specific components of a supply
chain, such as the source of one single element used in the manufacture
of one part of the laptop, or a single factory where one stage of the
production takes place. Maintaining such a focus makes the research more
effective.

Supply chain research can be instrumental in linking a company to
ethical issues that taint their products, even though the physical
components of the product itself may not be controversial – for example,
the violation of indigenous land rights that often occurs when producing
rubber for car tires.

A key concept to remember about supply chains is **traceability:** the passing of information from one stage in the supply chain to the next.

This can relate to the initial source of the ingredients or raw material
of a product, the alterations it incurred along the way, or other
relevant details that may help trace an entire history of transportation
and production. Some companies have systems for this but many supply
chains are so long and complicated that it can be difficult even for the
companies directly involved to achieve a fully traceable supply chain.

Sometimes, **certification schemes** are used to ensure that products are
manufactured, produced and traded following specific standards. For
instance, they can indicate that the human rights and traditional land
rights of local and indigenous people are observed or that no tropical
forests are cleared to make a specific product. Well known certification
schemes include those for organic and fair trade produce or for
sustainable timber, palm oil or coffee.




![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/800/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/supply-chain-certificates_collage.png)
*Fairtrade certificate logos. Image from Pinterest: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/110619734567839836/*




In order to carry out supply chain research, it is necessary to get a
good understanding not only of the product you are trying to track and
its production prices, but also about **company finances** and **trading**
and **transport processes** in different countries.

**Re-evaluate** your assumptions and **verify** your data at every step. As
with any investigation, you should always question your initial
assumptions and results in order to make sure that the information you
collect is relevant to what you intended to prove. What at first appears
likely may in fact have another explanation. For instance, you might
have linked a company illegally clearing forests to a timber mill that
sells to a furniture company, only to find out that the furniture
company does not actually use the timber species harvested from the
forest in question. You therefore cannot make a direct connection
between the company and the illegal deforestation activity.

The **flexible** and **unpredictable** nature of supply chain research also
means that it is not always possible to anticipate how long your
research will take. Sometimes linking two processes can take a day of
online database work; sometimes it can take months and dozens of
research strategies and tools, including online and field research.

Due to the complexities of supply chain research and the legal, ethical
and safety risks involved in accusing large corporations of wrongdoing,
if you decide to conduct this kind of investigation, it’s best to take
your time to slowly expand your skills and understanding of supply
chains. Starting with basic searches and testing some of the tools and
techniques we present here would be an easy way to introduce
yourself to the field.


How and where do I start?
-------------------------

You can start your investigation at any point along the supply chain
where you suspect unethical or illegal behaviour might be taking place.

In most cases, investigators follow the trail downstream along the
supply chain from this entry point. For instance, if an investigation
starts at a mobile phone assembly plant suspected of using child labour,
it will most likely continue downstream to the brand that sells the
mobile phones, rather than upstream to the origin of the plastics and
metals used in the phones’ manufacturing process. The focus here will be
to expose illegal and unethical practices of exploiting children to
produce that phone.

In some cases, however, research can occur upstream. An example might be
the case of an ill-famed company establishing a manufacturing plant in a
town whose residents want to find out if the products and commodities
entering the plant are of controversial origin.

Once you identify an entry point, you can follow a sequential path along
the supply chain to collect evidence connecting each step, be it along a
production process or a product’s transport path.

That said, your research will most likely be nonlinear, and you will
have to use multiple tools. Depending on what you are investigating,
your work will involve extensive online research, and sometimes field
research.

You might need to use anything from maps to identify the source
locations of raw materials or interactive transport tracking services to
follow commodity shipments, to online customs and product databases or
corporate records and stock exchange websites to learn more about the
products and companies you are focusing on. You might also sometimes
undertake field research and collaborate with others to collect evidence
and witness accounts about what happens on the ground.

Remember that companies tend to tightly guard information about their
suppliers and customers to avoid exposing their internal mechanisms and
advantages to their competitors. Companies also sometimes hire
investigators to research the supply chains of competing products and of
other companies.

Good supply chain investigators look for evidence that links the chain,
and this often requires a lot of creativity since no two supply chains
are the same and access to information can vary vastly depending on the
data sources available or the geographies where research is being
conducted. The ability to ‘look sideways’ by making previously unseen
connections is a critical skill, as is being able to come up with
innovative solutions to research problems.


## Mapping and profiling actors

When thinking about supply chains, a useful first step is to understand
the various actors – the participating companies or individuals – that
operate along the way. While the actual chains are usually unique combinations, some
of the actors can be categorised into groups, which are often connected
by shipping or transport providers.

Most often, along a supply chain you will encounter the following:

```cik-definition
```
> **Producer:** company, person or group of persons
> that takes, grows, mines or otherwise produces the raw materials (such
> as the owner of a timber plantation).
>
> **Initial processor:** company that carries out the first
> transformation of the product (for instance, a timber mill turning a log
> into planks).
>
> **Further processors:** companies that carry out additional
> transformations of the product (wood can ultimately even turn into fiber
> for textiles). In many supply chains there are multiple further
> processors, while other supply chains may not have any.
>
> **Importers, exporters, distributors:** companies responsible
> for getting the products into different countries, by operating or
> hiring shipping or trucking services to carry the products (for
> example, shipping the wood planks to a deposit in country X, from where
> it can be sold to furniture manufacturers and others).
>
> **Manufacturers:** companies that carry out the last
> transformation before the product is sold to consumers or industrial
> users (such as the company making furniture or toothpicks).
>
> **Retailers:** companies and individuals responsible for
> selling the products to consumers or industrial users (like a hardware
> shop or furniture store).


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/800/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/supply-chain-blocks.png)
*Simplified example of supply chain actors and their connections*


Let’s assume you’ve chosen your entry point in the supply chain: for
example, a local fabrics manufacturer where you suspect that workers are
mistreated and underpaid, and you want to find out what fashion brands
buy these fabrics and where they are sold. You’ve also mapped the actors
you will focus on: the manufacturer and the retailer (plus, potentially,
the final consumers), so you can raise public awareness about your
investigation findings.

Now you know what and whom you are investigating. The next step is to
establish a list of companies and people of interest – your actual
actors. Before you move any further, begin by researching their company
ownerships, business models, networks of collaborators, places where
they are registered and/or operate, products they manufacture or sell,
and possible controversies surrounding them already.

By doing this background research you create a profile of your main
actors and their connections, build your foundation for further
investigation, prepare yourself for interviews with relevant people
(sources, witnesses, specialists etc.), establish connections and assess
your potential risks.

Internet research is a good place to start looking for basic information
about businesses and people associated with the companies in the supply
chain you're investigating. Try to find out as much as possible from
companies’ websites and activity reports, supply chain due diligence reports (if available), stock exchanges (if the company is listed), media
articles or social media profiles of the company, its board and staff. At the same time, look for official documents that include the companies’ registration data, shareholders,
subsidiaries, members of the board, directors, annual financial reports
and other relevant details. If you already know in which countries to
look for official documents, you can start by checking available online corporate
registries and other official databases, such as land records, court
records, patent registries etc.

There are a number of platforms to help you start this research. Some
corporate registry websites may seem intimidating at first, but don’t be
daunted: there are more user-friendly, convenient and extremely helpful
ways to get introduced to the company research field.


_**[The Investigative Dashboard](https://id.occrp.org/)**_
(ID) is a resource built by the [Organized Crime and Corruption
Reporting Project](https://www.occrp.org/en), providing a global index
of public registries for companies, land and courts. From this platform
you can go to the country and type of records you want, but note that
while some corporate records provide free access to basic or more advanced information, many will require registration and fee payments in order to provide detailed company records. ID often marks the resources as free or paid for, so you know what to expect. In addition, the platform
allows investigators to freely search and use its _**[database](https://data.occrp.org/)**_ of millions
of documents and datasets from public sources, leaks and investigations
it has conducted in the past. Chances are that you might find good leads in there too.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/800/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/supply-chain-ID.png)
*Investigative Dashboard database: https://id.occrp.org/. Screenshot by Tactical Tech.*


There are other similar resources where you can continue and expand your
research. _**[Open Corporates](https://opencorporates.com/)**_ is a
platform that lets you search freely for company records and related
data it collects from all over the world. [The International Consortium for
Investigative Journalism (ICIJ)](https://www.icij.org/) runs the _**[Offshore Leaks Database](https://offshoreleaks.icij.org/)**_ a massive resource of company records and other useful documents that have been revealed by large leaks and projects the group has been working on, including the Paradise Papers, Panama Papers, Offshore Leaks and Bahamas Leaks.

Do not forget about the power of social media, and especially
professional networks such as LinkedIn, where you can search for people
and companies as well as identify possible connections among your
subjects of interest.

Elsewhere in this kit, you can learn how to build a strong body of evidence, how to investigate companies and
people, how to do online and offline research and how to use various
tools and techniques such as maps, social media, interviews etc. You can
combine resources and develop new skills with each issue you investigate, based on the demands
of your particular context, while also making sure to remember the
safety and ethical considerations that go hand in hand with your plans.


## Inspiration and guidance: a sample investigation


This section uses a fictitious example to show you the kinds of tools
and approaches you might use to carry out a supply chain investigation.
While the example is relatively realistic, the [chain of
custody](#term-chain-of-custody) has been simplified and shortened for
the sake of illustration.

Unlike the product itself, chain of custody research cannot follow a
simple research recipe, so the goal of this example is to demonstrate
the need to think creatively and adjust to each specific case.

```cik-note
```
>**Note:** all the names of the entities involved are fictional, and
>any relation to real companies or products is coincidental.


### Sparked by a story of injustice


You read a news report that details how villagers in a South American
country have been rounded up at gunpoint and forced to work in a bauxite mine run by a company named Brown Gold. You want to find out if the
minerals from the mine are being used in well known consumer products.

You start your investigation by focusing on the supply chain at the
point where the mineral leaves the mine or company warehouse. This is
your entry point. Initially, you might begin with simple online
research. Keep in mind that this case could be sensitive, so it’s useful to familiarise yourself with and start using some digital security tools, such as the [Tor Browser](https://www.torproject.org/projects/torbrowser.html.en), [DuckDuckGo](https://duckduckgo.com/) search engine or a [VPN](#term-vpn) (Virtual Private Network), to avoid being tracked.

Your search does not yield much more than the name of the company
itself, but in the process you gather additional information, such as
the company’s registration number and the names of the founders and key
people in the company.

You also carry out online research and ask some specialists you trust on
related subjects such as:

- The uses of bauxite (as a main source of aluminium).
- Detailed information about the aluminium production process and its impacts.
- The largest companies involved in global bauxite and aluminium production.
- The main uses for aluminium in industry.

```cik-example
```
>**Example of online research entry points:**
>
>In many instances, [Wikipedia](https://www.wikipedia.org/) provides useful entry-level information and links to external sources that you can check for more in-depth knowledge. Specialised websites that focus on the particular minerals are helpful for understanding the field and its main players.
>In this case, for example, a DuckDuckGo (or a Firefox, Google etc.) search for “aluminium and bauxite” leads you to pages like that of [Geology.com](https://geology.com/minerals/bauxite.shtml),
>[Aluminum.com](https://www.aluminum.org/industries/production/bauxite) (Aluminum Association in the US), [Australia’s Aluminum Council](https://aluminium.org.au/interactive-flowchart/bauxite-mining-chart/) and many others, where you read about the production process and uses of this resource.
>
>Searching for “bauxite producers world 2019,” for instance, takes you to information on the current _**[top bauxite producer countries and companies](http://www.thedailyrecords.com/2018-2019-2020-2021/world-famous-top-10-list/world/largest-bauxite-producing-countries-world/6882/)**_.
>
>Searching for “aluminium producers world 2019” leads you to other resources such as a [map and downloadable database](http://www.world-aluminium.org/statistics/) of top aluminium producers from international institute [World Aluminium](http://www.world-aluminium.org/) and additional data from statistics aggregator [Statista.](https://www.statista.com/statistics/280920/largest-aluminum-companies-worldwide/)


### Investigating the key players

Your preliminary online research provided key information about the
products and actors at the centre of your investigation; enough to build
some background knowledge and basic details about your topic and main
subjects (producers, buyers etc.).

You then continue by mapping your actors and the connections between
them – who is the producer, who delivers the commodity to whom, by what
means etc. – and following the supply chain downstream from your entry
point.


#### The Producer: MINING COMPANY

Since the company – Brown Gold – is mining the resource, it is
considered the producer of the commodity. By using the resources
mentioned above, you can gather various types of information to get a
better understanding of who Brown Gold is:

- Physical company operations and locations – source: maps and
satellite images (potential transport routes).
- Type of company (private, public and, if so, shareholders, etc.) –
source: company registries, stock exchange, website information.
- Financial information – source: company filings, annual reports on
company’s website, stock exchange (if the company is listed on any
stock exchange).
- Registered office addresses (used for formal purposes, e.g. where
mail can be received) and trading or operational addresses (where
actual activities occur) – source: online and offline corporate records,
company’s website.
- Board members and directors (and any other businesses they might be
involved in) – source: company registries, company website, company
and people databases (see above for Investigative Dashboard and
other resources)
- Bank connections, loans, mortgages – source: corporate records,
court records, annual financial reports.
- Employee feedback, reviews and grievances on sites like [glassdoor.com](https://www.glassdoor.com/Reviews/index.htm), [comparably.com](https://www.comparably.com/), [careerbliss.com](https://www.careerbliss.com/), sometimes yield information about the company.
- The current careers or job opportunity page and archives of job postings from _**[archive.org](https://archive.org/web/)**_ may yield information about projects, locations, and future plans of the company.

```cik-note
```
>**Note:**
>
>Carefully searching through company reports and other documents can lead to very useful findings.
>Annual reports, corporate sustainability reports, company presentations and shareholder filings can all be useful not only for basic information on a company and its finances, but also, in some cases, about its customers (photos within these reports can be especially useful for this).
>

In this case, you find the location of the company on satellite images
and identify its board members and directors, but cannot find any
further information about them. Nor have you found detailed financial
data or names of any customers of the company. Searching through company
records and annual reports, you do, however, manage to find a subsidiary
(a company owned and controlled by another company) of Brown Gold, by
the name of BG Shipping.


#### The Initial Processor: ALUMINIUM SMELTER

From your initial online research you found out that bauxite is used to
manufacture aluminium, which in turn is produced in large smelters
(facilities where the metal is extracted by heating and melting the
ore). You also discovered that smelters are massive investments – to the
extent that there are fewer than 150 of them globally.

This information will help you in your investigation, because it offers
a relatively narrow field of inquiry. In order to find one of the
smelters that is supplied by Brown Gold, you use a process of
elimination to rule out certain routes, while looking for likely
connections between the mining company and certain smelters.

Examples of investigation activities to do this include:

- Finding out if there are any smelters located in the country the
mine operates in – there are none.
- Identifying other bauxite mines in the country – you find
three more.
- Analysing whether this country exports any bauxite overseas using
the UN Trade database [Comtrade](https://comtrade.un.org/) -- you
find that six countries received bauxite. So far you know of four
mines in total; this means you can’t yet determine which country is
supplied by Brown Gold.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/800/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/supply-chain-comtrade.png)
*Sample comtrade.org search. Screenshot by Tactical Tech.*

In order to identify the smelter, you need to first determine the
country that receives the bauxite.

With a relatively simple online search (e.g. "how is bauxite
transported") you learn that bauxite is most commonly transported by
ships or trains.

You carry out further online research, and check transport routes and
map locations (using Google Maps or Google Earth) to map out deepwater
seaports. Then, by looking at the train lines between the four mines and
the location of the mines to each other, you conclude that Brown Gold is
most likely exporting its bauxite using ships.

Moreover, you previously identified the BG Shipping subsidiary and were
able to locate its warehouses on the map at a port that is connected to
Brown Gold via train track. You can therefore conclude with even higher
certainty that the company exports its bauxite from this port.


#### The Trader: SHIPPING COMPANY

Today, the majority of commodity-carrying ships are fitted with live
tracking devices, which employ what’s called an Automatic Identification
System (AIS). All vessels over 300 tonnes (gross) are required by law to
emit radio signals with their speed, direction and exact location. This
data is also captured by receivers on other vessels and by stationary
receivers in ports and on coastlines.

Services such as _**[Marine Traffic](https://www.marinetraffic.com/)**_,
_**[Vesseltracker](https://www.vesseltracker.com/)**_, and others use AIS
information to produce live maps showing the movement of ships across
the globe. To search the map, you need to know the name or registration
number of the vessel you are tracking. For additional resources and depending on your needs, other tracking services may be of further help, so reviews like this from [Marine Insight](https://www.marineinsight.com/) - _**["Top Eight Websites to Track Your Ship"](https://www.marineinsight.com/know-more/top-8-websites-to-track-your-ship/)**_ - may help when looking for alternatives.

Most of the ship tracking services either have a free version or offer a free trial,
which can be used to track these vessels. They also tend to employ their
own network of receiver stations and have maps on their websites that
indicate the network coverage. MarineTraffic, for instance, provides
near real-time information about vessels’ positions and voyage-related
information. In addition to the AIS receivers, which are ground-based,
Marine Traffic (and other such platforms) also collects vessel data from
satellite receivers. Obtaining this data often requires paying a one-off
fee or signing up for yearly subscription, which is usually cheaper if
you plan to use it longer.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/800/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/supply-chain-marinetraffic.png)
*Sample MarineTraffic.org search. Screenshot by Tactical Tech.*


```cik-Tip
```
>**Tip:**
>
>Always search more than one vessel-tracking website to trace the same ship, as some platforms may provide
>you with more free information than others, and some may have the data you need while others may not.


If there is an area of particular importance to your investigation that
is not covered by these services, it’s even possible to buy your own
receiver online, from places like Amazon or specialised websites such as
_**[Milltech Marine](https://www.milltechmarine.com/)**_. If this is the case, do some
serious research first: check what range you need to cover, what other
users recommend, verify equipment reviews, consult forums like
_**[ShipSpotting](http://www.shipspotting.com/)**_ and maybe even check with
some vessel tracking enthusiasts for advice and recommendations.

```cik-note
```
>**Note:**
>
>Taking this route requires some financial cost, a stable Internet connection and power supply in the place where you are installing the receiver, knowledge of how to use the equipment and some extra effort to maintain it. However, if it helps to advance your investigation and you have no other options, it’s well worth the relatively short time it takes to learn and experiment. Marine Traffic provides useful advice for such situations in its [FAQ section](https://help.marinetraffic.com/hc/en-us/articles/205326387-What-is-the-cost-of-an-AIS-Receiving-Station-).
>The website also offers free receivers to those who want to contribute to its [live map](https://www.marinetraffic.com/en/p/expand-coverage), but that requires you to share your receiver’s data
>with the platform, something you might or might not want to do, depending on how sensitive your
>investigation is. If you decide to go ahead and operate a receiver, you also get a free subscription plan, or an upgrade to your existing account.

After deciding which tracking site(s) to use, you spend several weeks
mapping out the journeys of vessels that appear to have been loading
materials at BG Shipping. Ships that spend several hours berthed right
next to the BG Shipping facility in the port are more than likely
loading or unloading.

You can track journeys of vessels by saving their movements on some of the above mentioned online platforms. In Marine Traffic, for example, you can create your own "fleet" of vessels to monitor and get updates on, or set up notifications when a vessel reaches a port. You can also access past travel information in the database - a service that is sometimes free, other times for a fee.

Eventually, by tracking these ships, you identify three ports in three
different countries across Asia that received exports from BG Shipping.
This means that, at the very least, three separate smelters bought
bauxite from the Brown Gold mine.

Using Marine Traffic you manage to show that a vessel that left BG
Shipping went directly to the port facility of a company called Caliper
Alumina. You conclude that Caliper Alumina is one of the smelters
receiving bauxite from Brown Gold mine.

Think back to your earlier research, when you identified and mapped
smelters, their transport routes, subsidiaries, key personnel, addresses
and finances. You can now apply the same techniques and resources to
find out more about Caliper Alumina and its activities.

```cik-tip
```
>**Tip:**
>
>Vessels sometimes make multiple stopovers. It’s also not always clear from sites like Marine
>Traffic whether a vessel is loading or unloading. Look for additional information about the vessel’s draught (the depth its hull is submerged into the water), which provides another indicator of whether it has been loading or unloading (the higher the draught, the heavier the ship).
>

#### The Further Processor: CAN PRODUCER

In this example, you can use another resource, namely *customs data*, to
try to identify one of the customers of Caliper Alumina.

Customs data consists of shipping manifests, which every shipment vessel
is legally required to carry while it travels around the world.
Governments collect this data in order to produce their trade data
statistics. It’s possible to purchase this data, but doing so is
expensive and only available for a limited number of countries.
Generally it provides the name of the importer and exporter – so if one
country in the trade does not make customs data available for purchase,
you may be able to get the same information from the other country
involved in the transaction.

The cost of purchasing customs data has decreased lately, in line with a
growing number of companies offering it for sale. Examples of such services include [Trade Atlas](https://www.tradeatlas.com/en), [Export Genius](https://www.exportgenius.in/export-import-trade-data/), [Xportmine](https://www.xportmine.com/), [ListThe](https://www.listthe.com/), [Panjiva](https://panjiva.com/) etc.

The first step in this process is knowing which data to buy, and to do
that, you need some context and background information.

Products are usually organised by HS (harmonised system) codes, a
nomenclature developed and maintained by the _**[World Customs
Organization](http://www.wcoomd.org/)**_(WCO). The codes are organised into 21 sections, which are subdivided into 97 chapters, in turn further subdivided into several thousand headings and subheadings. The most recent HS codes edition, which we use in this section as of 2019, is [the 2017 HS Nomenclature](http://www.wcoomd.org/en/topics/nomenclature/instrument-and-tools/hs-nomenclature-2017-edition/hs-nomenclature-2017-edition.aspx) (note that a new one will come into place in [2022](http://www.wcoomd.org/en/topics/nomenclature/instrument-and-tools/hs-nomenclature-2022-edition.aspx)).

**Here is how it works:**

Usually each subdivision comes in a two-digit increment. The case in our example:

Section XV "Base Metals and Articles of Base Metal" lists a series of chapters numbered from 72 to 83.

- Chapter 76 is Aliminium and articles thereof. This is followed by 16 headings, for example:

- Heading 7606: Aluminium plates, sheets and strips...
- Heading 7612: Aluminium casks, drums, cans, boxes and similar
containers (including rigid or collapsible tubular containers),
for any material (other than compressed or liquefied gas), of a
capacity not exceeding 300l, whether or not lined or
heat-insulated, but not fitted with mechanical or
thermal equipment.

- Subheading 7612.10: Collapsible Tubular containers.


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/800/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/supply-chain-wcoomd.png)
*Base metals codes from World Customs Organization wcoomd.org. Screenshot by Tactical Tech.*

When buying customs data, most of the time it is necessary to know the
HS codes of the products in question. Often HS codes are defined down to
eight or 10 digits, but at these levels the classification is usually
set by the countries rather than the WCO. In addition, codes are
reviewed and sometimes adjusted every few years, including those of the
World Customs Organization above, so make sure you stay updated.

```cik-note
```
>**Note:**
>
>Each product and shipment that enters a country has an HS code attached
>to it, so both domestic and international trade statistics are usually
>based on those HS codes. For instance, the United Nations maintains the
>_**[Comtrade database](https://comtrade.un.org/)**_, which contains such statistics -
>[comtrade.un.org/data](https://comtrade.un.org/data) - that can also
>prove useful for chain of custody investigations.

In many cases, customs data comes in spreadsheets and often contains
false positives or multiple spellings for the same company name.
Depending on the purpose of your investigation, you might need to clean
the data, especially for statistical analysis. The details of the data
vary depending on the country that supplies it, but it usually includes:

- the names of the exporter and importer,
- the date of the shipment (at least the month),
- the weight of the shipment,
- the HS codes,
- the port of loading,
- the port of discharge.

Additional data fields can include addresses, phone numbers, detailed
product descriptions, the value of the shipments, the name of the vessel
and shipping company, as well as the names and addresses of notifying
parties (the buyer or importer who receives notice of the shipment’s
arrival).

In this case, the data shows that a US company by the name of Beverages
Inc. purchased aluminium sheets from Caliper Alumina. You also find a
number of older shipments made by that company, which you are able to
verify with historical Marine Traffic data, by tracking the vessel’s
past movement as detailed above. You also notice that the Beverages Inc.
website features photos that show cans of soft drinks produced by
prominent brands.


#### The Manufacturer: SOFT DRINK COMPANY

One of the companies whose cans are displayed on the website of
Beverages Inc. is called Spark Drinks.

While you might be tempted to link this well known brand to the
controversial bauxite producer, more research is necessary to ensure
that this supply chain is indeed linked. There are various reasons why
they may not be connected. There could, for instance, be different
grades (strength, concentration) of aluminium in different lines of cans
used for different brands. So, there is a chance that Sparks Drinks may
not be using the aluminium made from the bauxite sourced from Brown
Gold’s mine. This is where the problem of *traceability* emerges.


```cik-note
```
>**Note:**
>
>Supply chain *traceability* is a process and technique that ensures the
>integrity and transparency of a company’s supply chain, by tracking
>products from origin to consumer. This reduces the risk of mislabelling
>commodities that have been mixed from different suppliers and regions,
>allows products to be tracked back to their source and helps identify
>particular batches of the product if something goes wrong and products
>need to be tested or recalled, etc. Traceability is a key challenge in
>supply chains.
>
>In certain cases, however, commodities and products are *segregated*
>(they have their *identity preserved*), which means that companies can
>trace the product and its components all the way back to the origin and
>the producer. This segregation is often required for certified products
>(e.g. those who must meet strict quality standards) and animal products
>(for instance, to identify farms in case food safety issues arise).
>
>In most instances, though, raw materials or components from different
>sources (e.g. from different mines and suppliers) are mixed together at
>various points in the supply chain. The result is that, due to a lack of
>segregation and traceability, most companies do not know for sure
>whether they are connected to actors involved in illegal, unethical or
>controversial activity. From an investigator’s point of view, this means
>that all actors downstream of where the mixing occurs are part of the
>supply chain in question.
>
>For companies, traceability is important for a number of reasons. These
>include compliance with policies of sustainable sourcing (for example,
>making sure they do not contribute to famine, drought or environmental
>damage) or with conflict minerals regulations implemented by various countries, which impose strict rules
>on the purchase and use of commodities obtained from areas controlled by
>armed groups or where abuses take place. Such aspects are important for a company’s accountability
>to regulatory authorities and to their consumers.

There are a number of research techniques you can use to find out if
mixing occurs along the supply chain.

Sometimes the *company information* (websites, public filings) includes
details about where the company purchases commodities from and if it
keeps a detailed log of its own supply chain from the sourcing of
materials until the point these reach its ‘hands’. In other situations,
searching online for *scientific articles* or other investigations on
your topic or commodity of interest, as well as more general magazines such as _**[Supply Chain Quarterly](https://www.supplychainquarterly.com/)**_, and available *industry*
*research* might shed light on how the sector operates in general.

In addition, NGOs like [Greenpeace](https://www.greenpeace.org/international/), [Rainforest Action Network](https://www.ran.org/), [Rainforest Alliance](https://www.rainforest-alliance.org/), [Mining Watch](https://www.miningwatch.ca/) and many others already conduct research on various supply chains and their impact on human rights, the environment, and the wellbeing of communities living and working along the chain. Contact them for advice if you find their knowledge useful.

```cik-tip
```
>**Tip: using NGO reports**
>
>The techniques and resources outlined here are often used by
>NGOs working to pressure companies into changing their ways of
>production or cleaning up their supply chains. NGO reports can offer
>insightful and inspiring examples of how such tools have been used in
>conjunction with other supply chain research techniques. When reading reports, keep in mind the
>mission of the NGO. Some of the language
>may not be appropriate for investigators or journalists and some texts are
>designed for advocacy and policy purposes. However, it’s an interesting
>exercise to try and figure out how the research was carried out and what
>investigation tools and strategies were applied.


Also look out for *trade and industry magazines* and websites that profile
the way your company of interest operates (see [supplychain247.com](https://www.supplychain247.com/),
for example). However, keep an eye out for articles and research that appear
one-sided or solely focused on positive angles – this is a strong clue
that they may be sponsored by the very companies you are investigating,
and thus not always reliable or complete. Search multiple sources and
read as much as possible to create a complete picture.

You might also consider *talking to industry experts* or even to the
company itself.

```cik-warning
```
>**Warning:**
>
>Before talking directly to the company of interest, you should conduct
>thorough background research on their operations, and be prepared to ask
>highly relevant questions rather than details you might already find
>elsewhere. If you plan on accusing the company of something, it makes
>sense to avoid telling them so, or even closely hinting at that, before
>you’ve gathered solid proof. Powerful companies will go a long way to
>make you stop your research, try to discredit you or sometimes even
>threaten you with legal action or other types of
>pressure.

Now, back to our scenario. You find out from industry magazines that
mixing occurs at the aluminium smelter and that all products leaving the
smelter contain bauxite from various sources. Since this question is
crucial, you also confirm it by carrying out interviews with industry
experts and eventually also with representatives of the smelter itself.
This means that any product containing aluminium that originates from
the smelter, including the products of Spark Drinks, is potentially
contaminated with bauxite of controversial origin.


#### The Retailer: SUPERMARKET

In this supply chain, the last step of identifying retailers that sell
the products to consumers is relatively simple, since most retailers in
your country have online stores and stocked products can be found via
the retailer websites – as well, of course, as in person by visiting the
stores. This allows you to complete the supply chain and link the
bauxite to a number of major supermarket chains.


### Loose ends and further questions

Even though the case study ends here, there are many potential questions
still to be answered to increase your certainty in the information.
These include:

- Are the customers listed by Beverages Inc. still up to date?
- Is it possible that the bauxite and aluminium are of grades that
rule out the smelter you identified, and thus render the particular
chain impossible (and therefore another smelter would have to be
identified)?
- Does Beverages Inc. export to other countries?
- Are there ways to confirm the supply chain links using other
research techniques or further verify the results you obtained so
far?

You can employ numerous different research techniques to identify
customers of the aluminium smelter and, depending on how many more
transformations take place, there may still be more chains to uncover
before you reach the final consumer product.

For electronic products, it is likely that the aluminium will change
hands many times before it can be found (unrecognisable in shape and
form) in a store. In some cases, due to the nature and complexity of
supply chains, you’ll have to invent or significantly adapt the research
techniques as you go.


## Risks and considerations

Supply chain research often comes with significant risks, many of which
depend on both the research strategies employed and the geographies in
which they take place. Because this type of research is often connected to and can effect the profits, loss, and earnings of companies it makes sense to have an understanding of how to secure your research and work pseudonymously. If you decide go public with your findings timed release of key research (instead of releasing everything at one) is a method of dealing with crisis management and public relations teams. Developing a methodical and meta data preserving way to catalog data, notes, research and files is key. Developing a workflow that involves having an encrypted backup is recommended.

If you are technical, look for ways to split decryption keys into _**[(Shamir Secret) Shards](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamir%27s_Secret_Sharing)**_. This allows you to split the key into several pieces, and only if a certain number of pieces come together does the key reform. Look at projects like [ssss](http://point-at-infinity.org/ssss/) and [storaj](https://storj.io) for examples. Hashes of these shards can be used to create so-called "insurance files" which may be of use to the investigator, however is out of scope of this section.


### Safety concerns

Successful supply chain research often requires field research in
addition to online data collection and shipments tracking. Field
research can be high-risk, especially in some areas where corruption is
rife, where investigators and journalists have little protection, or
where violence occurs frequently. This kind of work is usually carried
out in teams and under detailed plans for physical and digital security.
High-risk work should only be undertaken by experienced investigators.

### Data access

Companies usually have multiple customers and suppliers, often hundreds.
There are, therefore, many forks in the road when it comes to following
the trail of the products you are investigating. Make such choices
carefully and base them on knowledge, facts and information rather than
on gut feelings. An assessment of the difficulty of research and
operating in specific jurisdictions for instance is a rational way of
making such decisions.

It is important to give special consideration to supply chain
bottlenecks (for example, a blockage in the chain caused by shortage of
a commodity or increased demand), where only a small number of companies
may have overwhelming market shares. For instance, a handful of traders
now dominates the global trade of agricultural commodities.

In most cases it is not possible to prove the supply chain for a
specific product all the way to the end product. This diluting of the
chain is common and is not necessarily a concern. For example, it would
be very difficult to show that one harvest of coffee beans from a
smallholder (a non-industrial farmer harvesting a small area) who has
illegally cleared forested land, ends up in instant coffee products of a
large consumer brand company.

However, it might be possible to prove that the smallholder sells to a
specific agent, who sells the coffee to a company where the beans are
collected and washed. This company in turn sells to a processing and
packaging company that ships the coffee overseas to an importer, who
passes it on to the coffee roasting and grinding company, which in turn
sells it to a large consumer brand that packages the instant coffee
products, which are sold in supermarkets around the world. In this
scenario, the coffee coming from the illegal plants can never be traced
directly and has been mixed with coffee from many other plantations, yet
the consumer brand is still exposed to the problem because it is part of
the supply chain.

### Legal issues

Supply chain research requires a very high standard of proof. If the
evidence at any point of the chain is not strong enough, additional
investigations are required to corroborate your theory or conclusion.

This type of investigation often ultimately exposes very large
corporations for whom reputation is as valuable as the products
themselves, and they often respond strongly when their reputation is
under threat. Be aware that it is not uncommon for lawsuits to ensue
from investigations on supply chains, and there are significant risks
for investigators even when the information they provide is accurate.

Supply chain investigators frequently obtain legal advice before
publishing the results of their work, which often exposes powerful
companies and shady practices. Investigators may find themselves accused
of libel or slander; countries have different laws and potentials for
legal issues so asking for legal opinions is useful even if only as a
precaution.

Organisations and individuals engaged in this research can also face
SLAPP (Strategic Lawsuit Against Public Participation) suits. These
are designed to use the companies’ large funds to engage investigators
in lawsuits in order to intimidate them and delay or stop them from
carrying out their work, even if the lawsuit has very little or no legal
merit and chance of success.

### Collaboration

In order to avoid or mitigate many of the risks above, investigators
often collaborate with others doing similar work, including asking for
advice and best practices on physical and digital security.

Collaboration is particularly advisable when investigating certain
topics for the first time, and additional knowledge and expertise is
required. Don’t shy away from asking questions to trustworthy
organisations and people, and avoid the temptation of trying to take
down a company with your very first investigation.

Collaboration also help share the workload, so you don’t have to follow
the entire supply chain by yourself, but instead work with local
communities, experts, NGOs and others to collect stronger evidence and
reach a more impactful result.

Some countries may have freedom of information laws which allow citizens of that
country access to information not available to the investigator. It may make
sense to collaborate with a citizen who can access other information and at
lower risks.

When collaborating it makes sense to take extra care to encrypt files/folders
and get hashes (fingerprints) of files to look for changes. The kind of "source
control" software a developer uses ([github](https://github.com/), [bitbucket](https://bitbucket.org/product), etc.) may aid you in doing this and keeping track of files, edits, and ownership. When working in a team be sure to have a secure and encrypted way to communicate. Messenger apps like [Signal](https://signal.org/en/) or [Wire](https://wire.com/) are recommended.

<hr class="thick">


_Published April 2019_

## Resources


### Articles and Guides

- *[Supply Studies Research Guide: A Research Guide for Investigations in the Critical Study of Logistics](https://supplystudies.com/research-guide/)*, by Matthew Hockenberry, Ingrid Burrington, Karina Garcia, and Colette Perold, 2025.
- *[Destroying elephant habitat while breaching the Indonesian Government moratorium on forest clearance for palm oil](https://www.ran.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/RAN_Leuser_Watch_PT_Agra_Bumi_Niaga.pdf)*, from Rainforest Action Network. A supply chain investigation report.
- *[Eating up the Amazon](https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/wp-content/uploads/legacy/Global/usa/report/2010/2/eating-up-the-amazon.pdf)*, from Greenpeace. An investigation report on tracking soy from the Amazon.
- *[Investigating supply chains](https://gijn.org/investigating-supply-chains/)*, from the Global Investigative Journalist Network (GIJN). A short guide including tips, resources and techniques.
- *[Investigating illegal timber](https://www.earthsight.org.uk/tic/guidebook)*, from the Timber Investigations Center. A guidebook to researching timber supply chains.
- *[Top eight websites to track your ship accurately](https://www.marineinsight.com/know-more/top-8-websites-to-track-your-ship/)*, from Marine Insight. A brief review including tools comparisons and tips.
- *[Who's Got the Power: Tackling imbalances in agricultural supply chain](https://web.archive.org/web/20151117052506/http://www.fairtrade-advocacy.org/power/183-projects/psc-main-page/870-the-report-on-imbalances-of-power-in-agricultural-supply-chains)*, from the Fair Trade Advocacy Office (FTAO). A study about power concentration and unfair trading practices in agricultural supply chains.




### Tools and Databases

- *[EAN/UPC barcodes overview](https://www.gs1.org/standards/barcodes/ean-upc)*, from GS1 non-profit
organisation. A list of global standards of barcodes.

- *[EU rules regarding food hygiene](https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/biosafety/food_hygiene_en)*, from the European Commission.

- *[GS1 searchable database of barcodes](http://gepir.gs1.org/index.php/search-by-gtin)*, from GS1 non-profit organisation.


## Glossary



### term-certified-product

**Certified product** – a product that receives approvals and certifications confirming it abides by a set of quality and performance standards and regulations. For instance, certified organic foods are expected to be produced without the use of chemicals but also abide by specific conditions in terms of storage, packaging and transport, among others.

### term-chain-of-custody

**Chain of custody** – a process that seeks to demonstrate that physical and other sorts of evidence is protected from tampering during the course of an investigation, from the point of collection to the point of publication or use in other circumstances, such as in court.

### term-commodities

**Commodities** – traded goods or raw material.

### term-distributor

**Distributor** – company responsible for getting the products into
different countries, by operating or hiring shipping or trucking
companies to carry the products.

### term-exporter

**Exporter** – an actor (company, organisation, person) sending goods and materials across the border to a foreign country for trade purposes.

### term-further-processor

**Further processor** – company that carries out additional
transformations of a product (such as wood turning into fiber
for textiles). In many supply chains there are multiple further
processors, while other supply chains may not have any.

### term-hs-codes

**HS (harmonised system) codes** – a nomenclature established
to organise and list products for easier classification and labelling
across borders. It is developed and maintained by the World Customs
Organisation (WCO).

### term-importer

**Importer** – an actor (company, organisation, person) bringing in goods and materials across the border from a foreign country for trade purposes.

### term-initial-processor

**Initial processor** – company that carries out the first
transformation of the product (for instance, a timber mill turning a log
into planks).

### term-manufacturer

**Manufacturer** – company that carries out the last transformation
before the product is sold to consumers or industrial users (such as the
company making furniture or toothpicks).

### term-producer

**Producer** – the actor, be it a company or person/group of persons,
that takes, grows, mines or otherwise produces the raw materials (such
as the owner of a timber plantation).

### term-product-certification

**Product certification** – a process of verification and approvals confirming that certain standards and regulations are met by products and services.

### term-retailer

**Retailer** – company or individual responsible for selling the
products to consumers or industrial users (like a hardware shop or
furniture store).

### term-supply-chain

**Supply chain** – a set of steps that commodities undergo on their way to becoming products used by consumers or industry.

### term-supply-chain-bottleneck

**Supply chain bottleneck** – an impediment or blockage along the supply chain caused by shortage of a commodity or increased demand, and where only a small number of companies may have overwhelming market shares.

### term-vpn

**Virtual Private Network (VPN)** - software that creates an
encrypted "tunnel" from your device to a server run by your VPN service
provider. Websites and other online services will receive your requests
from - and return their responses to - the IP address of that server
rather than your actual IP address.

# Supply Chain and Product Investigations

By Mario Rautner

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/il/Supply-Chains-cik-illustration.png)

```cik-in-short

```
**In Short:**
An introduction to supply chain investigations
including an overview of the main tools, techniques, data resources and
essential precautions to take. It focuses on the main actors, stages and
processes of a supply chain and includes a hypothetical step-by-step
investigation.

---

A supply chain is a set of steps that commodities (goods or raw
materials) undergo on their way to becoming products used by consumers
or industry. Stages of a supply chain can include places where products
are transformed – for instance, an electronics company where circuit
boards are made from transistors and copper lines – and where products
change hands through transport, such as the loading of circuit boards
onto a truck and their shipment to a computer manufacturing company.

Supply chain investigations focus on collecting evidence to link each
stage of a product’s journey, from the origin of the commodity (for example, the
_**[conflict metal Cassiterite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_resource)**_ used in the solder of laptops) to the final
product (the laptop itself), which can contain hundreds of different
components.

Supply chain investigations can be particularly impactful because they
have the potential to change the behaviours of entire industries when done
effectively, with thorough and reliable evidence. A _**[recent supply
chain investigation](https://www.cips.org/en/supply-management/news/2018/may/unilever-suspends-palm-oil-suppliers-over-deforestation-claims/)**_, for example, alleged that a large palm oil supplier to major food
companies such as Unilever, Nestle and Mars, was conducting massive
deforestation and not complying with sustainable palm oil policies. As a
direct result, Unilever stalled collaboration with the supplier pending
further verification. In another case, in 2018, the British supermarket
chain Iceland (Iceland Foods Ltd) _**[committed to removing palm oil](https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/apr/10/iceland-to-be-first-uk-supermarket-to-cut-palm-oil-from-own-brand-products)**_ from the manufacturing process of its own-brand products by the end of 2018.

Such investigations and findings can have an impact not only on the
reputation but also the financial status of the companies involved, in
particular when they reveal illegal or controversial activities.
Remember, something doesn’t have to be illegal for it to be considered
controversial. Even the use of rabbit fur, while legal, can be
problematic for a fashion brand these days.

In the most successful cases, this change impacts the supply chain all
the way back to the origin of the product, where it may prevent social
injustice, from poor working conditions and human rights abuses to land
grabbing and environmental destruction. Most supply chain investigations
are carried out by journalists or NGOs, but they can also be carried out
by determined independent investigators or people and communities
directly affected by an issue.


## Shining a light on where our products really come from


Everything around us is part of a supply chain: from the food we eat to
the clothes we wear and the devices we use. But the nature of supply
chains means we rarely know how commodities are produced or even where
they originate.

We might not always consider where our items come from, who harvested
their source materials and under what conditions, whether there was
exploitation or abuse at any point in the production process, or if
illicit acts were carried out along the way. However, these questions
might be brought to light when public controversies emerge about certain
products or brands.

Perhaps you live in an area where important materials are extracted or
produced. These materials may then enter the supply chain of a final
product through countless contracts, companies and manufacturing
processes, which are often opaque or not immediately visible or
accessible. Or, you might live near a forest that is being cleared and
want to know whether the companies carrying out the clearing are using
legal and ethical practices. The impact of such findings can be crucial
in saving the forest.

Of course, it is not always an investigator living in that area who will
expose the truth, but having someone familiar or close by to observe or
launch the quest for more information is a good start. Often a few
initial questions and some raw evidence can lead to wider investigations
by another group or organsation. Equipped with awareness of the risks
and safety considerations, and a good assessment of what is at stake,
you can also start this way.

Even if you are not physically present at a location where commodities
are produced or extracted, many supply chain investigations can be
carried out remotely. Indeed, in most cases, elements of a supply chain
are located far from the source - for example, wood processing and
furniture manufacturing can take place continents away from where the
forest was originally cleared.


```cik-tip
```
>**Tip: Helpful tools anyone can use to track products**
>
>**Barcodes:** Barcodes on consumer products can be used to identify the manufacturer, as well as additional
>information about them. Though barcodes are most familiar to us from a retail environment, they are also
>used in many other areas of business. In retail, the most commonly used barcodes are the _**[European
>Article Numbers / EAN](https://www.gs1.org/standards/barcodes/ean-upc)**_, which are usually 13 digits and
>used both
>within and outside of Europe; and the 12-digit Universal Product Code (UPC), which is very similar to the
>EAN, but contains a zero at the beginning to signify registration in the USA or Canada. The first three
>digits of an EAN indicates the name of the company that accepted the registration of the code (note that
>the location of the company may be, but not necessarily, the same as the location the product was
>manufactured). Companies that accept registration are members of the GS1 non-profit organisation, which
>maintains the global standard of barcodes. The [GS1 website](https://www.gs1.org/) has a _**[searchable database](http://gepir.gs1.org/index.php/search-by-gtin)**_ of many (but not all) barcodes. In some cases
>this is useful for obtaining information on who registered the product, and can also reveal details about
>a company's ownership structure.
>
>**Food hygiene labels:**
>EU rules regarding _**[food hygiene](https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/biosafety/food_hygiene_en)**_ cover
>all stages of the production, processing,
>distribution and sale of animal products intended for human consumption. This includes, for example, fish,
>meat and dairy products, but also non-food animal byproducts such as pet food. Every individual
>establishment or outlet (rather than the parent company) that puts such products on the market has to have
>a registration number that uniquely identifies it. The codes can be found on the product label and consist
>of a combination of letters and numbers within an oval. Have a look at a product at home to see how easy it
>is to spot the label. The EU has an online database of the codes, making it possible to identify the name
>of the company that put the product on the market. Since the regulation covers imports and any processes
>that take place in the EU, the database includes details of companies from over 80 countries. This comes in
>very useful if you’re investigating the chain of custody of a food product manufactured by a large consumer
>company on a contract, or a brand owned by a supermarket. In such cases, you can identify the actual
>producer rather than the brand owner.



## What makes a supply chain investigation


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/1000/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/il/Supply-Chains-Breakdown-cik-illustration.png)

As you prepare for your investigation it’s important to have an informed idea
of what is possible to achieve, what is relevant and what may be out of
reach.

Supply chains are not always simple; they are often complicated networks
or webs of actors, processes and movements. While it takes thousands of
links in multiple supply chains to manufacture one laptop,
investigations usually focus on very specific components of a supply
chain, such as the source of one single element used in the manufacture
of one part of the laptop, or a single factory where one stage of the
production takes place. Maintaining such a focus makes the research more
effective.

Supply chain research can be instrumental in linking a company to
ethical issues that taint their products, even though the physical
components of the product itself may not be controversial – for example,
the violation of indigenous land rights that often occurs when producing
rubber for car tires.

A key concept to remember about supply chains is **traceability:** the passing of information from one stage in the supply chain to the next.

This can relate to the initial source of the ingredients or raw material
of a product, the alterations it incurred along the way, or other
relevant details that may help trace an entire history of transportation
and production. Some companies have systems for this but many supply
chains are so long and complicated that it can be difficult even for the
companies directly involved to achieve a fully traceable supply chain.

Sometimes, **certification schemes** are used to ensure that products are
manufactured, produced and traded following specific standards. For
instance, they can indicate that the human rights and traditional land
rights of local and indigenous people are observed or that no tropical
forests are cleared to make a specific product. Well known certification
schemes include those for organic and fair trade produce or for
sustainable timber, palm oil or coffee.




![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/800/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/supply-chain-certificates_collage.png)
*Fairtrade certificate logos. Image from Pinterest: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/110619734567839836/*




In order to carry out supply chain research, it is necessary to get a
good understanding not only of the product you are trying to track and
its production prices, but also about **company finances** and **trading**
and **transport processes** in different countries.

**Re-evaluate** your assumptions and **verify** your data at every step. As
with any investigation, you should always question your initial
assumptions and results in order to make sure that the information you
collect is relevant to what you intended to prove. What at first appears
likely may in fact have another explanation. For instance, you might
have linked a company illegally clearing forests to a timber mill that
sells to a furniture company, only to find out that the furniture
company does not actually use the timber species harvested from the
forest in question. You therefore cannot make a direct connection
between the company and the illegal deforestation activity.

The **flexible** and **unpredictable** nature of supply chain research also
means that it is not always possible to anticipate how long your
research will take. Sometimes linking two processes can take a day of
online database work; sometimes it can take months and dozens of
research strategies and tools, including online and field research.

Due to the complexities of supply chain research and the legal, ethical
and safety risks involved in accusing large corporations of wrongdoing,
if you decide to conduct this kind of investigation, it’s best to take
your time to slowly expand your skills and understanding of supply
chains. Starting with basic searches and testing some of the tools and
techniques we present here would be an easy way to introduce
yourself to the field.


How and where do I start?
-------------------------

You can start your investigation at any point along the supply chain
where you suspect unethical or illegal behaviour might be taking place.

In most cases, investigators follow the trail downstream along the
supply chain from this entry point. For instance, if an investigation
starts at a mobile phone assembly plant suspected of using child labour,
it will most likely continue downstream to the brand that sells the
mobile phones, rather than upstream to the origin of the plastics and
metals used in the phones’ manufacturing process. The focus here will be
to expose illegal and unethical practices of exploiting children to
produce that phone.

In some cases, however, research can occur upstream. An example might be
the case of an ill-famed company establishing a manufacturing plant in a
town whose residents want to find out if the products and commodities
entering the plant are of controversial origin.

Once you identify an entry point, you can follow a sequential path along
the supply chain to collect evidence connecting each step, be it along a
production process or a product’s transport path.

That said, your research will most likely be nonlinear, and you will
have to use multiple tools. Depending on what you are investigating,
your work will involve extensive online research, and sometimes field
research.

You might need to use anything from maps to identify the source
locations of raw materials or interactive transport tracking services to
follow commodity shipments, to online customs and product databases or
corporate records and stock exchange websites to learn more about the
products and companies you are focusing on. You might also sometimes
undertake field research and collaborate with others to collect evidence
and witness accounts about what happens on the ground.

Remember that companies tend to tightly guard information about their
suppliers and customers to avoid exposing their internal mechanisms and
advantages to their competitors. Companies also sometimes hire
investigators to research the supply chains of competing products and of
other companies.

Good supply chain investigators look for evidence that links the chain,
and this often requires a lot of creativity since no two supply chains
are the same and access to information can vary vastly depending on the
data sources available or the geographies where research is being
conducted. The ability to ‘look sideways’ by making previously unseen
connections is a critical skill, as is being able to come up with
innovative solutions to research problems.


## Mapping and profiling actors

When thinking about supply chains, a useful first step is to understand
the various actors – the participating companies or individuals – that
operate along the way. While the actual chains are usually unique combinations, some
of the actors can be categorised into groups, which are often connected
by shipping or transport providers.

Most often, along a supply chain you will encounter the following:

```cik-definition
```
> **Producer:** company, person or group of persons
> that takes, grows, mines or otherwise produces the raw materials (such
> as the owner of a timber plantation).
>
> **Initial processor:** company that carries out the first
> transformation of the product (for instance, a timber mill turning a log
> into planks).
>
> **Further processors:** companies that carry out additional
> transformations of the product (wood can ultimately even turn into fiber
> for textiles). In many supply chains there are multiple further
> processors, while other supply chains may not have any.
>
> **Importers, exporters, distributors:** companies responsible
> for getting the products into different countries, by operating or
> hiring shipping or trucking services to carry the products (for
> example, shipping the wood planks to a deposit in country X, from where
> it can be sold to furniture manufacturers and others).
>
> **Manufacturers:** companies that carry out the last
> transformation before the product is sold to consumers or industrial
> users (such as the company making furniture or toothpicks).
>
> **Retailers:** companies and individuals responsible for
> selling the products to consumers or industrial users (like a hardware
> shop or furniture store).


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/800/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/supply-chain-blocks.png)
*Simplified example of supply chain actors and their connections*


Let’s assume you’ve chosen your entry point in the supply chain: for
example, a local fabrics manufacturer where you suspect that workers are
mistreated and underpaid, and you want to find out what fashion brands
buy these fabrics and where they are sold. You’ve also mapped the actors
you will focus on: the manufacturer and the retailer (plus, potentially,
the final consumers), so you can raise public awareness about your
investigation findings.

Now you know what and whom you are investigating. The next step is to
establish a list of companies and people of interest – your actual
actors. Before you move any further, begin by researching their company
ownerships, business models, networks of collaborators, places where
they are registered and/or operate, products they manufacture or sell,
and possible controversies surrounding them already.

By doing this background research you create a profile of your main
actors and their connections, build your foundation for further
investigation, prepare yourself for interviews with relevant people
(sources, witnesses, specialists etc.), establish connections and assess
your potential risks.

Internet research is a good place to start looking for basic information
about businesses and people associated with the companies in the supply
chain you're investigating. Try to find out as much as possible from
companies’ websites and activity reports, supply chain due diligence reports (if available), stock exchanges (if the company is listed), media
articles or social media profiles of the company, its board and staff. At the same time, look for official documents that include the companies’ registration data, shareholders,
subsidiaries, members of the board, directors, annual financial reports
and other relevant details. If you already know in which countries to
look for official documents, you can start by checking available online corporate
registries and other official databases, such as land records, court
records, patent registries etc.

There are a number of platforms to help you start this research. Some
corporate registry websites may seem intimidating at first, but don’t be
daunted: there are more user-friendly, convenient and extremely helpful
ways to get introduced to the company research field.


_**[The Investigative Dashboard](https://id.occrp.org/)**_
(ID) is a resource built by the [Organized Crime and Corruption
Reporting Project](https://www.occrp.org/en), providing a global index
of public registries for companies, land and courts. From this platform
you can go to the country and type of records you want, but note that
while some corporate records provide free access to basic or more advanced information, many will require registration and fee payments in order to provide detailed company records. ID often marks the resources as free or paid for, so you know what to expect. In addition, the platform
allows investigators to freely search and use its _**[database](https://data.occrp.org/)**_ of millions
of documents and datasets from public sources, leaks and investigations
it has conducted in the past. Chances are that you might find good leads in there too.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/800/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/supply-chain-ID.png)
*Investigative Dashboard database: https://id.occrp.org/. Screenshot by Tactical Tech.*


There are other similar resources where you can continue and expand your
research. _**[Open Corporates](https://opencorporates.com/)**_ is a
platform that lets you search freely for company records and related
data it collects from all over the world. [The International Consortium for
Investigative Journalism (ICIJ)](https://www.icij.org/) runs the _**[Offshore Leaks Database](https://offshoreleaks.icij.org/)**_ a massive resource of company records and other useful documents that have been revealed by large leaks and projects the group has been working on, including the Paradise Papers, Panama Papers, Offshore Leaks and Bahamas Leaks.

Do not forget about the power of social media, and especially
professional networks such as LinkedIn, where you can search for people
and companies as well as identify possible connections among your
subjects of interest.

Elsewhere in this kit, you can learn how to build a strong body of evidence, how to investigate companies and
people, how to do online and offline research and how to use various
tools and techniques such as maps, social media, interviews etc. You can
combine resources and develop new skills with each issue you investigate, based on the demands
of your particular context, while also making sure to remember the
safety and ethical considerations that go hand in hand with your plans.


## Inspiration and guidance: a sample investigation


This section uses a fictitious example to show you the kinds of tools
and approaches you might use to carry out a supply chain investigation.
While the example is relatively realistic, the [chain of
custody](#term-chain-of-custody) has been simplified and shortened for
the sake of illustration.

Unlike the product itself, chain of custody research cannot follow a
simple research recipe, so the goal of this example is to demonstrate
the need to think creatively and adjust to each specific case.

```cik-note
```
>**Note:** all the names of the entities involved are fictional, and
>any relation to real companies or products is coincidental.


### Sparked by a story of injustice


You read a news report that details how villagers in a South American
country have been rounded up at gunpoint and forced to work in a bauxite mine run by a company named Brown Gold. You want to find out if the
minerals from the mine are being used in well known consumer products.

You start your investigation by focusing on the supply chain at the
point where the mineral leaves the mine or company warehouse. This is
your entry point. Initially, you might begin with simple online
research. Keep in mind that this case could be sensitive, so it’s useful to familiarise yourself with and start using some digital security tools, such as the [Tor Browser](https://www.torproject.org/projects/torbrowser.html.en), [DuckDuckGo](https://duckduckgo.com/) search engine or a [VPN](#term-vpn) (Virtual Private Network), to avoid being tracked.

Your search does not yield much more than the name of the company
itself, but in the process you gather additional information, such as
the company’s registration number and the names of the founders and key
people in the company.

You also carry out online research and ask some specialists you trust on
related subjects such as:

- The uses of bauxite (as a main source of aluminium).
- Detailed information about the aluminium production process and its impacts.
- The largest companies involved in global bauxite and aluminium production.
- The main uses for aluminium in industry.

```cik-example
```
>**Example of online research entry points:**
>
>In many instances, [Wikipedia](https://www.wikipedia.org/) provides useful entry-level information and links to external sources that you can check for more in-depth knowledge. Specialised websites that focus on the particular minerals are helpful for understanding the field and its main players.
>In this case, for example, a DuckDuckGo (or a Firefox, Google etc.) search for “aluminium and bauxite” leads you to pages like that of [Geology.com](https://geology.com/minerals/bauxite.shtml),
>[Aluminum.com](https://www.aluminum.org/industries/production/bauxite) (Aluminum Association in the US), [Australia’s Aluminum Council](https://aluminium.org.au/interactive-flowchart/bauxite-mining-chart/) and many others, where you read about the production process and uses of this resource.
>
>Searching for “bauxite producers world 2019,” for instance, takes you to information on the current _**[top bauxite producer countries and companies](http://www.thedailyrecords.com/2018-2019-2020-2021/world-famous-top-10-list/world/largest-bauxite-producing-countries-world/6882/)**_.
>
>Searching for “aluminium producers world 2019” leads you to other resources such as a [map and downloadable database](http://www.world-aluminium.org/statistics/) of top aluminium producers from international institute [World Aluminium](http://www.world-aluminium.org/) and additional data from statistics aggregator [Statista.](https://www.statista.com/statistics/280920/largest-aluminum-companies-worldwide/)


### Investigating the key players

Your preliminary online research provided key information about the
products and actors at the centre of your investigation; enough to build
some background knowledge and basic details about your topic and main
subjects (producers, buyers etc.).

You then continue by mapping your actors and the connections between
them – who is the producer, who delivers the commodity to whom, by what
means etc. – and following the supply chain downstream from your entry
point.


#### The Producer: MINING COMPANY

Since the company – Brown Gold – is mining the resource, it is
considered the producer of the commodity. By using the resources
mentioned above, you can gather various types of information to get a
better understanding of who Brown Gold is:

- Physical company operations and locations – source: maps and
satellite images (potential transport routes).
- Type of company (private, public and, if so, shareholders, etc.) –
source: company registries, stock exchange, website information.
- Financial information – source: company filings, annual reports on
company’s website, stock exchange (if the company is listed on any
stock exchange).
- Registered office addresses (used for formal purposes, e.g. where
mail can be received) and trading or operational addresses (where
actual activities occur) – source: online and offline corporate records,
company’s website.
- Board members and directors (and any other businesses they might be
involved in) – source: company registries, company website, company
and people databases (see above for Investigative Dashboard and
other resources)
- Bank connections, loans, mortgages – source: corporate records,
court records, annual financial reports.
- Employee feedback, reviews and grievances on sites like [glassdoor.com](https://www.glassdoor.com/Reviews/index.htm), [comparably.com](https://www.comparably.com/), [careerbliss.com](https://www.careerbliss.com/), sometimes yield information about the company.
- The current careers or job opportunity page and archives of job postings from _**[archive.org](https://archive.org/web/)**_ may yield information about projects, locations, and future plans of the company.

```cik-note
```
>**Note:**
>
>Carefully searching through company reports and other documents can lead to very useful findings.
>Annual reports, corporate sustainability reports, company presentations and shareholder filings can all be useful not only for basic information on a company and its finances, but also, in some cases, about its customers (photos within these reports can be especially useful for this).
>

In this case, you find the location of the company on satellite images
and identify its board members and directors, but cannot find any
further information about them. Nor have you found detailed financial
data or names of any customers of the company. Searching through company
records and annual reports, you do, however, manage to find a subsidiary
(a company owned and controlled by another company) of Brown Gold, by
the name of BG Shipping.


#### The Initial Processor: ALUMINIUM SMELTER

From your initial online research you found out that bauxite is used to
manufacture aluminium, which in turn is produced in large smelters
(facilities where the metal is extracted by heating and melting the
ore). You also discovered that smelters are massive investments – to the
extent that there are fewer than 150 of them globally.

This information will help you in your investigation, because it offers
a relatively narrow field of inquiry. In order to find one of the
smelters that is supplied by Brown Gold, you use a process of
elimination to rule out certain routes, while looking for likely
connections between the mining company and certain smelters.

Examples of investigation activities to do this include:

- Finding out if there are any smelters located in the country the
mine operates in – there are none.
- Identifying other bauxite mines in the country – you find
three more.
- Analysing whether this country exports any bauxite overseas using
the UN Trade database [Comtrade](https://comtrade.un.org/) -- you
find that six countries received bauxite. So far you know of four
mines in total; this means you can’t yet determine which country is
supplied by Brown Gold.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/800/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/supply-chain-comtrade.png)
*Sample comtrade.org search. Screenshot by Tactical Tech.*

In order to identify the smelter, you need to first determine the
country that receives the bauxite.

With a relatively simple online search (e.g. "how is bauxite
transported") you learn that bauxite is most commonly transported by
ships or trains.

You carry out further online research, and check transport routes and
map locations (using Google Maps or Google Earth) to map out deepwater
seaports. Then, by looking at the train lines between the four mines and
the location of the mines to each other, you conclude that Brown Gold is
most likely exporting its bauxite using ships.

Moreover, you previously identified the BG Shipping subsidiary and were
able to locate its warehouses on the map at a port that is connected to
Brown Gold via train track. You can therefore conclude with even higher
certainty that the company exports its bauxite from this port.


#### The Trader: SHIPPING COMPANY

Today, the majority of commodity-carrying ships are fitted with live
tracking devices, which employ what’s called an Automatic Identification
System (AIS). All vessels over 300 tonnes (gross) are required by law to
emit radio signals with their speed, direction and exact location. This
data is also captured by receivers on other vessels and by stationary
receivers in ports and on coastlines.

Services such as _**[Marine Traffic](https://www.marinetraffic.com/)**_,
_**[Vesseltracker](https://www.vesseltracker.com/)**_, and others use AIS
information to produce live maps showing the movement of ships across
the globe. To search the map, you need to know the name or registration
number of the vessel you are tracking. For additional resources and depending on your needs, other tracking services may be of further help, so reviews like this from [Marine Insight](https://www.marineinsight.com/) - _**["Top Eight Websites to Track Your Ship"](https://www.marineinsight.com/know-more/top-8-websites-to-track-your-ship/)**_ - may help when looking for alternatives.

Most of the ship tracking services either have a free version or offer a free trial,
which can be used to track these vessels. They also tend to employ their
own network of receiver stations and have maps on their websites that
indicate the network coverage. MarineTraffic, for instance, provides
near real-time information about vessels’ positions and voyage-related
information. In addition to the AIS receivers, which are ground-based,
Marine Traffic (and other such platforms) also collects vessel data from
satellite receivers. Obtaining this data often requires paying a one-off
fee or signing up for yearly subscription, which is usually cheaper if
you plan to use it longer.

![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/800/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/supply-chain-marinetraffic.png)
*Sample MarineTraffic.org search. Screenshot by Tactical Tech.*


```cik-Tip
```
>**Tip:**
>
>Always search more than one vessel-tracking website to trace the same ship, as some platforms may provide
>you with more free information than others, and some may have the data you need while others may not.


If there is an area of particular importance to your investigation that
is not covered by these services, it’s even possible to buy your own
receiver online, from places like Amazon or specialised websites such as
_**[Milltech Marine](https://www.milltechmarine.com/)**_. If this is the case, do some
serious research first: check what range you need to cover, what other
users recommend, verify equipment reviews, consult forums like
_**[ShipSpotting](http://www.shipspotting.com/)**_ and maybe even check with
some vessel tracking enthusiasts for advice and recommendations.

```cik-note
```
>**Note:**
>
>Taking this route requires some financial cost, a stable Internet connection and power supply in the place where you are installing the receiver, knowledge of how to use the equipment and some extra effort to maintain it. However, if it helps to advance your investigation and you have no other options, it’s well worth the relatively short time it takes to learn and experiment. Marine Traffic provides useful advice for such situations in its [FAQ section](https://help.marinetraffic.com/hc/en-us/articles/205326387-What-is-the-cost-of-an-AIS-Receiving-Station-).
>The website also offers free receivers to those who want to contribute to its [live map](https://www.marinetraffic.com/en/p/expand-coverage), but that requires you to share your receiver’s data
>with the platform, something you might or might not want to do, depending on how sensitive your
>investigation is. If you decide to go ahead and operate a receiver, you also get a free subscription plan, or an upgrade to your existing account.

After deciding which tracking site(s) to use, you spend several weeks
mapping out the journeys of vessels that appear to have been loading
materials at BG Shipping. Ships that spend several hours berthed right
next to the BG Shipping facility in the port are more than likely
loading or unloading.

You can track journeys of vessels by saving their movements on some of the above mentioned online platforms. In Marine Traffic, for example, you can create your own "fleet" of vessels to monitor and get updates on, or set up notifications when a vessel reaches a port. You can also access past travel information in the database - a service that is sometimes free, other times for a fee.

Eventually, by tracking these ships, you identify three ports in three
different countries across Asia that received exports from BG Shipping.
This means that, at the very least, three separate smelters bought
bauxite from the Brown Gold mine.

Using Marine Traffic you manage to show that a vessel that left BG
Shipping went directly to the port facility of a company called Caliper
Alumina. You conclude that Caliper Alumina is one of the smelters
receiving bauxite from Brown Gold mine.

Think back to your earlier research, when you identified and mapped
smelters, their transport routes, subsidiaries, key personnel, addresses
and finances. You can now apply the same techniques and resources to
find out more about Caliper Alumina and its activities.

```cik-tip
```
>**Tip:**
>
>Vessels sometimes make multiple stopovers. It’s also not always clear from sites like Marine
>Traffic whether a vessel is loading or unloading. Look for additional information about the vessel’s draught (the depth its hull is submerged into the water), which provides another indicator of whether it has been loading or unloading (the higher the draught, the heavier the ship).
>

#### The Further Processor: CAN PRODUCER

In this example, you can use another resource, namely *customs data*, to
try to identify one of the customers of Caliper Alumina.

Customs data consists of shipping manifests, which every shipment vessel
is legally required to carry while it travels around the world.
Governments collect this data in order to produce their trade data
statistics. It’s possible to purchase this data, but doing so is
expensive and only available for a limited number of countries.
Generally it provides the name of the importer and exporter – so if one
country in the trade does not make customs data available for purchase,
you may be able to get the same information from the other country
involved in the transaction.

The cost of purchasing customs data has decreased lately, in line with a
growing number of companies offering it for sale. Examples of such services include [Trade Atlas](https://www.tradeatlas.com/en), [Export Genius](https://www.exportgenius.in/export-import-trade-data/), [Xportmine](https://www.xportmine.com/), [ListThe](https://www.listthe.com/), [Panjiva](https://panjiva.com/) etc.

The first step in this process is knowing which data to buy, and to do
that, you need some context and background information.

Products are usually organised by HS (harmonised system) codes, a
nomenclature developed and maintained by the _**[World Customs
Organization](http://www.wcoomd.org/)**_(WCO). The codes are organised into 21 sections, which are subdivided into 97 chapters, in turn further subdivided into several thousand headings and subheadings. The most recent HS codes edition, which we use in this section as of 2019, is [the 2017 HS Nomenclature](http://www.wcoomd.org/en/topics/nomenclature/instrument-and-tools/hs-nomenclature-2017-edition/hs-nomenclature-2017-edition.aspx) (note that a new one will come into place in [2022](http://www.wcoomd.org/en/topics/nomenclature/instrument-and-tools/hs-nomenclature-2022-edition.aspx)).

**Here is how it works:**

Usually each subdivision comes in a two-digit increment. The case in our example:

Section XV "Base Metals and Articles of Base Metal" lists a series of chapters numbered from 72 to 83.

- Chapter 76 is Aliminium and articles thereof. This is followed by 16 headings, for example:

- Heading 7606: Aluminium plates, sheets and strips...
- Heading 7612: Aluminium casks, drums, cans, boxes and similar
containers (including rigid or collapsible tubular containers),
for any material (other than compressed or liquefied gas), of a
capacity not exceeding 300l, whether or not lined or
heat-insulated, but not fitted with mechanical or
thermal equipment.

- Subheading 7612.10: Collapsible Tubular containers.


![](https://cdn.ttc.io/i/fit/800/0/sm/0/plain/kit.exposingtheinvisible.org/supply-chain-wcoomd.png)
*Base metals codes from World Customs Organization wcoomd.org. Screenshot by Tactical Tech.*

When buying customs data, most of the time it is necessary to know the
HS codes of the products in question. Often HS codes are defined down to
eight or 10 digits, but at these levels the classification is usually
set by the countries rather than the WCO. In addition, codes are
reviewed and sometimes adjusted every few years, including those of the
World Customs Organization above, so make sure you stay updated.

```cik-note
```
>**Note:**
>
>Each product and shipment that enters a country has an HS code attached
>to it, so both domestic and international trade statistics are usually
>based on those HS codes. For instance, the United Nations maintains the
>_**[Comtrade database](https://comtrade.un.org/)**_, which contains such statistics -
>[comtrade.un.org/data](https://comtrade.un.org/data) - that can also
>prove useful for chain of custody investigations.

In many cases, customs data comes in spreadsheets and often contains
false positives or multiple spellings for the same company name.
Depending on the purpose of your investigation, you might need to clean
the data, especially for statistical analysis. The details of the data
vary depending on the country that supplies it, but it usually includes:

- the names of the exporter and importer,
- the date of the shipment (at least the month),
- the weight of the shipment,
- the HS codes,
- the port of loading,
- the port of discharge.

Additional data fields can include addresses, phone numbers, detailed
product descriptions, the value of the shipments, the name of the vessel
and shipping company, as well as the names and addresses of notifying
parties (the buyer or importer who receives notice of the shipment’s
arrival).

In this case, the data shows that a US company by the name of Beverages
Inc. purchased aluminium sheets from Caliper Alumina. You also find a
number of older shipments made by that company, which you are able to
verify with historical Marine Traffic data, by tracking the vessel’s
past movement as detailed above. You also notice that the Beverages Inc.
website features photos that show cans of soft drinks produced by
prominent brands.


#### The Manufacturer: SOFT DRINK COMPANY

One of the companies whose cans are displayed on the website of
Beverages Inc. is called Spark Drinks.

While you might be tempted to link this well known brand to the
controversial bauxite producer, more research is necessary to ensure
that this supply chain is indeed linked. There are various reasons why
they may not be connected. There could, for instance, be different
grades (strength, concentration) of aluminium in different lines of cans
used for different brands. So, there is a chance that Sparks Drinks may
not be using the aluminium made from the bauxite sourced from Brown
Gold’s mine. This is where the problem of *traceability* emerges.


```cik-note
```
>**Note:**
>
>Supply chain *traceability* is a process and technique that ensures the
>integrity and transparency of a company’s supply chain, by tracking
>products from origin to consumer. This reduces the risk of mislabelling
>commodities that have been mixed from different suppliers and regions,
>allows products to be tracked back to their source and helps identify
>particular batches of the product if something goes wrong and products
>need to be tested or recalled, etc. Traceability is a key challenge in
>supply chains.
>
>In certain cases, however, commodities and products are *segregated*
>(they have their *identity preserved*), which means that companies can
>trace the product and its components all the way back to the origin and
>the producer. This segregation is often required for certified products
>(e.g. those who must meet strict quality standards) and animal products
>(for instance, to identify farms in case food safety issues arise).
>
>In most instances, though, raw materials or components from different
>sources (e.g. from different mines and suppliers) are mixed together at
>various points in the supply chain. The result is that, due to a lack of
>segregation and traceability, most companies do not know for sure
>whether they are connected to actors involved in illegal, unethical or
>controversial activity. From an investigator’s point of view, this means
>that all actors downstream of where the mixing occurs are part of the
>supply chain in question.
>
>For companies, traceability is important for a number of reasons. These
>include compliance with policies of sustainable sourcing (for example,
>making sure they do not contribute to famine, drought or environmental
>damage) or with conflict minerals regulations implemented by various countries, which impose strict rules
>on the purchase and use of commodities obtained from areas controlled by
>armed groups or where abuses take place. Such aspects are important for a company’s accountability
>to regulatory authorities and to their consumers.

There are a number of research techniques you can use to find out if
mixing occurs along the supply chain.

Sometimes the *company information* (websites, public filings) includes
details about where the company purchases commodities from and if it
keeps a detailed log of its own supply chain from the sourcing of
materials until the point these reach its ‘hands’. In other situations,
searching online for *scientific articles* or other investigations on
your topic or commodity of interest, as well as more general magazines such as _**[Supply Chain Quarterly](https://www.supplychainquarterly.com/)**_, and available *industry*
*research* might shed light on how the sector operates in general.

In addition, NGOs like [Greenpeace](https://www.greenpeace.org/international/), [Rainforest Action Network](https://www.ran.org/), [Rainforest Alliance](https://www.rainforest-alliance.org/), [Mining Watch](https://www.miningwatch.ca/) and many others already conduct research on various supply chains and their impact on human rights, the environment, and the wellbeing of communities living and working along the chain. Contact them for advice if you find their knowledge useful.

```cik-tip
```
>**Tip: using NGO reports**
>
>The techniques and resources outlined here are often used by
>NGOs working to pressure companies into changing their ways of
>production or cleaning up their supply chains. NGO reports can offer
>insightful and inspiring examples of how such tools have been used in
>conjunction with other supply chain research techniques. When reading reports, keep in mind the
>mission of the NGO. Some of the language
>may not be appropriate for investigators or journalists and some texts are
>designed for advocacy and policy purposes. However, it’s an interesting
>exercise to try and figure out how the research was carried out and what
>investigation tools and strategies were applied.


Also look out for *trade and industry magazines* and websites that profile
the way your company of interest operates (see [supplychain247.com](https://www.supplychain247.com/),
for example). However, keep an eye out for articles and research that appear
one-sided or solely focused on positive angles – this is a strong clue
that they may be sponsored by the very companies you are investigating,
and thus not always reliable or complete. Search multiple sources and
read as much as possible to create a complete picture.

You might also consider *talking to industry experts* or even to the
company itself.

```cik-warning
```
>**Warning:**
>
>Before talking directly to the company of interest, you should conduct
>thorough background research on their operations, and be prepared to ask
>highly relevant questions rather than details you might already find
>elsewhere. If you plan on accusing the company of something, it makes
>sense to avoid telling them so, or even closely hinting at that, before
>you’ve gathered solid proof. Powerful companies will go a long way to
>make you stop your research, try to discredit you or sometimes even
>threaten you with legal action or other types of
>pressure.

Now, back to our scenario. You find out from industry magazines that
mixing occurs at the aluminium smelter and that all products leaving the
smelter contain bauxite from various sources. Since this question is
crucial, you also confirm it by carrying out interviews with industry
experts and eventually also with representatives of the smelter itself.
This means that any product containing aluminium that originates from
the smelter, including the products of Spark Drinks, is potentially
contaminated with bauxite of controversial origin.


#### The Retailer: SUPERMARKET

In this supply chain, the last step of identifying retailers that sell
the products to consumers is relatively simple, since most retailers in
your country have online stores and stocked products can be found via
the retailer websites – as well, of course, as in person by visiting the
stores. This allows you to complete the supply chain and link the
bauxite to a number of major supermarket chains.


### Loose ends and further questions

Even though the case study ends here, there are many potential questions
still to be answered to increase your certainty in the information.
These include:

- Are the customers listed by Beverages Inc. still up to date?
- Is it possible that the bauxite and aluminium are of grades that
rule out the smelter you identified, and thus render the particular
chain impossible (and therefore another smelter would have to be
identified)?
- Does Beverages Inc. export to other countries?
- Are there ways to confirm the supply chain links using other
research techniques or further verify the results you obtained so
far?

You can employ numerous different research techniques to identify
customers of the aluminium smelter and, depending on how many more
transformations take place, there may still be more chains to uncover
before you reach the final consumer product.

For electronic products, it is likely that the aluminium will change
hands many times before it can be found (unrecognisable in shape and
form) in a store. In some cases, due to the nature and complexity of
supply chains, you’ll have to invent or significantly adapt the research
techniques as you go.


## Risks and considerations

Supply chain research often comes with significant risks, many of which
depend on both the research strategies employed and the geographies in
which they take place. Because this type of research is often connected to and can effect the profits, loss, and earnings of companies it makes sense to have an understanding of how to secure your research and work pseudonymously. If you decide go public with your findings timed release of key research (instead of releasing everything at one) is a method of dealing with crisis management and public relations teams. Developing a methodical and meta data preserving way to catalog data, notes, research and files is key. Developing a workflow that involves having an encrypted backup is recommended.

If you are technical, look for ways to split decryption keys into _**[(Shamir Secret) Shards](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamir%27s_Secret_Sharing)**_. This allows you to split the key into several pieces, and only if a certain number of pieces come together does the key reform. Look at projects like [ssss](http://point-at-infinity.org/ssss/) and [storaj](https://storj.io) for examples. Hashes of these shards can be used to create so-called "insurance files" which may be of use to the investigator, however is out of scope of this section.


### Safety concerns

Successful supply chain research often requires field research in
addition to online data collection and shipments tracking. Field
research can be high-risk, especially in some areas where corruption is
rife, where investigators and journalists have little protection, or
where violence occurs frequently. This kind of work is usually carried
out in teams and under detailed plans for physical and digital security.
High-risk work should only be undertaken by experienced investigators.

### Data access

Companies usually have multiple customers and suppliers, often hundreds.
There are, therefore, many forks in the road when it comes to following
the trail of the products you are investigating. Make such choices
carefully and base them on knowledge, facts and information rather than
on gut feelings. An assessment of the difficulty of research and
operating in specific jurisdictions for instance is a rational way of
making such decisions.

It is important to give special consideration to supply chain
bottlenecks (for example, a blockage in the chain caused by shortage of
a commodity or increased demand), where only a small number of companies
may have overwhelming market shares. For instance, a handful of traders
now dominates the global trade of agricultural commodities.

In most cases it is not possible to prove the supply chain for a
specific product all the way to the end product. This diluting of the
chain is common and is not necessarily a concern. For example, it would
be very difficult to show that one harvest of coffee beans from a
smallholder (a non-industrial farmer harvesting a small area) who has
illegally cleared forested land, ends up in instant coffee products of a
large consumer brand company.

However, it might be possible to prove that the smallholder sells to a
specific agent, who sells the coffee to a company where the beans are
collected and washed. This company in turn sells to a processing and
packaging company that ships the coffee overseas to an importer, who
passes it on to the coffee roasting and grinding company, which in turn
sells it to a large consumer brand that packages the instant coffee
products, which are sold in supermarkets around the world. In this
scenario, the coffee coming from the illegal plants can never be traced
directly and has been mixed with coffee from many other plantations, yet
the consumer brand is still exposed to the problem because it is part of
the supply chain.

### Legal issues

Supply chain research requires a very high standard of proof. If the
evidence at any point of the chain is not strong enough, additional
investigations are required to corroborate your theory or conclusion.

This type of investigation often ultimately exposes very large
corporations for whom reputation is as valuable as the products
themselves, and they often respond strongly when their reputation is
under threat. Be aware that it is not uncommon for lawsuits to ensue
from investigations on supply chains, and there are significant risks
for investigators even when the information they provide is accurate.

Supply chain investigators frequently obtain legal advice before
publishing the results of their work, which often exposes powerful
companies and shady practices. Investigators may find themselves accused
of libel or slander; countries have different laws and potentials for
legal issues so asking for legal opinions is useful even if only as a
precaution.

Organisations and individuals engaged in this research can also face
SLAPP (Strategic Lawsuit Against Public Participation) suits. These
are designed to use the companies’ large funds to engage investigators
in lawsuits in order to intimidate them and delay or stop them from
carrying out their work, even if the lawsuit has very little or no legal
merit and chance of success.

### Collaboration

In order to avoid or mitigate many of the risks above, investigators
often collaborate with others doing similar work, including asking for
advice and best practices on physical and digital security.

Collaboration is particularly advisable when investigating certain
topics for the first time, and additional knowledge and expertise is
required. Don’t shy away from asking questions to trustworthy
organisations and people, and avoid the temptation of trying to take
down a company with your very first investigation.

Collaboration also help share the workload, so you don’t have to follow
the entire supply chain by yourself, but instead work with local
communities, experts, NGOs and others to collect stronger evidence and
reach a more impactful result.

Some countries may have freedom of information laws which allow citizens of that
country access to information not available to the investigator. It may make
sense to collaborate with a citizen who can access other information and at
lower risks.

When collaborating it makes sense to take extra care to encrypt files/folders
and get hashes (fingerprints) of files to look for changes. The kind of "source
control" software a developer uses ([github](https://github.com/), [bitbucket](https://bitbucket.org/product), etc.) may aid you in doing this and keeping track of files, edits, and ownership. When working in a team be sure to have a secure and encrypted way to communicate. Messenger apps like [Signal](https://signal.org/en/) or [Wire](https://wire.com/) are recommended.

<hr class="thick">


_Published April 2019_

## Resources


### Articles and Guides

- *[Supply Studies Research Guide: A Research Guide for Investigations in the Critical Study of Logistics](https://supplystudies.com/research-guide/)*, by Matthew Hockenberry, Ingrid Burrington, Karina Garcia, and Colette Perold, 2025.
- *[Destroying elephant habitat while breaching the Indonesian Government moratorium on forest clearance for palm oil](https://www.ran.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/RAN_Leuser_Watch_PT_Agra_Bumi_Niaga.pdf)*, from Rainforest Action Network. A supply chain investigation report.
- *[Eating up the Amazon](https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/wp-content/uploads/legacy/Global/usa/report/2010/2/eating-up-the-amazon.pdf)*, from Greenpeace. An investigation report on tracking soy from the Amazon.
- *[Investigating supply chains](https://gijn.org/investigating-supply-chains/)*, from the Global Investigative Journalist Network (GIJN). A short guide including tips, resources and techniques.
- *[Investigating illegal timber](https://www.earthsight.org.uk/tic/guidebook)*, from the Timber Investigations Center. A guidebook to researching timber supply chains.
- *[Top eight websites to track your ship accurately](https://www.marineinsight.com/know-more/top-8-websites-to-track-your-ship/)*, from Marine Insight. A brief review including tools comparisons and tips.
- *[Who's Got the Power: Tackling imbalances in agricultural supply chain](https://web.archive.org/web/20151117052506/http://www.fairtrade-advocacy.org/power/183-projects/psc-main-page/870-the-report-on-imbalances-of-power-in-agricultural-supply-chains)*, from the Fair Trade Advocacy Office (FTAO). A study about power concentration and unfair
 trading practices in agricultural supply chains.




### Tools and Databases

- *[EAN/UPC barcodes overview](https://www.gs1.org/standards/barcodes/ean-upc)*, from GS1 non-profit
organisation. A list of global standards of barcodes.

- *[EU rules regarding food hygiene](https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/biosafety/food_hygiene_en)*, from the European Commission.

- *[GS1 searchable database of barcodes](http://gepir.gs1.org/index.php/search-by-gtin)*, from GS1 non-profit organisation.


## Glossary



### term-certified-product

**Certified product** – a product that receives approvals and certifications confirming it abides by a set of quality and performance standards and regulations. For instance, certified organic foods are expected to be produced without the use of chemicals but also abide by specific conditions in terms of storage, packaging and transport, among others.

### term-chain-of-custody

**Chain of custody** – a process that seeks to demonstrate that physical and other sorts of evidence is protected from tampering during the course of an investigation, from the point of collection to the point of publication or use in other circumstances, such as in court.

### term-commodities

**Commodities** – traded goods or raw material.

### term-distributor

**Distributor** – company responsible for getting the products into
different countries, by operating or hiring shipping or trucking
companies to carry the products.

### term-exporter

**Exporter** – an actor (company, organisation, person) sending goods and materials across the border to a foreign country for trade purposes.

### term-further-processor

**Further processor** – company that carries out additional
transformations of a product (such as wood turning into fiber
for textiles). In many supply chains there are multiple further
processors, while other supply chains may not have any.

### term-hs-codes

**HS (harmonised system) codes** – a nomenclature established
to organise and list products for easier classification and labelling
across borders. It is developed and maintained by the World Customs
Organisation (WCO).

### term-importer

**Importer** – an actor (company, organisation, person) bringing in goods and materials across the border from a foreign country for trade purposes.

### term-initial-processor

**Initial processor** – company that carries out the first
transformation of the product (for instance, a timber mill turning a log
into planks).

### term-manufacturer

**Manufacturer** – company that carries out the last transformation
before the product is sold to consumers or industrial users (such as the
company making furniture or toothpicks).

### term-producer

**Producer** – the actor, be it a company or person/group of persons,
that takes, grows, mines or otherwise produces the raw materials (such
as the owner of a timber plantation).

### term-product-certification

**Product certification** – a process of verification and approvals confirming that certain standards and regulations are met by products and services.

### term-retailer

**Retailer** – company or individual responsible for selling the
products to consumers or industrial users (like a hardware shop or
furniture store).

### term-supply-chain

**Supply chain** – a set of steps that commodities undergo on their way to becoming products used by consumers or industry.

### term-supply-chain-bottleneck

**Supply chain bottleneck** – an impediment or blockage along the supply chain caused by shortage of a commodity or increased demand, and where only a small number of companies may have overwhelming market shares.

### term-vpn

**Virtual Private Network (VPN)** - software that creates an
encrypted "tunnel" from your device to a server run by your VPN service
provider. Websites and other online services will receive your requests
from - and return their responses to - the IP address of that server
rather than your actual IP address.

6 months ago
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